Realist writers in Russian literature. Critical realism in 19th century literature

What is realism in literature? It is one of the most common directions, reflecting realistic image reality. The main task this direction stands reliable disclosure of phenomena encountered in life, with the help detailed description of the depicted characters and the situations that happen to them through typification. What is important is the lack of embellishment.

Among other directions, only in realistic special attention given to the right artistic depiction life, and not the emerging reaction to certain life events, for example, as in romanticism and classicism. The heroes of realist writers appear before readers exactly as they were presented to the author's gaze, and not as the writer would like to see them.

Realism, as one of the widespread trends in literature, settled closer to the middle of the 19th century after its predecessor - romanticism. The 19th century is subsequently designated as the era of realistic works, but romanticism did not cease to exist, it only slowed down in development, gradually turning into neo-romanticism.

Important! The definition of this term was first introduced into literary criticism by D.I. Pisarev.

The main features of this direction are as follows:

Full compliance with the reality depicted in any work of the painting.
True specific typification of all the details in the images of the heroes.
The basis is a conflict situation between a person and society.
Image in the work deep conflict situations , the drama of life.
The author paid special attention to the description of all phenomena environment.
A significant feature of this literary movement is considered to be the writer’s significant attention to the inner world of a person, his state of mind.

Main genres

In any direction of literature, including realistic, a certain system of genres develops. Its development was particularly influenced by prose genres realism, due to the fact that more than others were suitable for more correct artistic description new realities, their reflection in literature. Works of this direction are divided into the following genres.

A social and everyday novel that describes the way of life and certain type characters inherent in a given way of life. A good example“Anna Karenina” became a social and everyday genre.
A socio-psychological novel, in the description of which one can see a complete detailed disclosure of the human personality, his personality and inner world.
A realistic novel in verse is a special type of novel. A wonderful example of this genre is "", written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A realistic philosophical novel contains eternal reflections on such topics as: the meaning of human existence, confrontation between good and evil sides, a certain purpose human life. An example of realistic philosophical novel is “”, the author of which is Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov.
Story.
Tale.

In Russia, its development began in the 1830s and was a consequence of the conflict situation in various fields society, contradictions between higher ranks and ordinary people. Writers began to turn to current problems of its time.

Thus begins rapid development new genre - realistic novel, which usually described a hard life common people, their burdens and problems.

The initial stage in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature is the “natural school”. During the period natural school» literary works in to a greater extent they sought to describe the hero’s position in society, his belonging to some kind of profession. Among all genres leading place occupied physiological essay.

In the 1850s–1900s, realism began to be called critical because main goal became a criticism of what is happening, the relationship between a certain person and spheres of society. Issues such as: the measure of the influence of society on the life of an individual were considered; actions that can change a person and the world around him; the reason for the lack of happiness in human life.

Given literary direction has become extremely popular in Russian literature, since Russian writers were able to make the world genre system richer. Works appeared from in-depth questions of philosophy and morality.

I.S. Turgenev created the ideological type of heroes, character, personality and internal state which directly depended on the author’s assessment of the worldview, finding certain meaning in the concepts of their philosophy. Such heroes are subject to ideas that they follow until the very end, developing them as much as possible.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy, the system of ideas that develops during the character’s life determines the form of his interaction with surrounding reality, depends on the morality and personal characteristics of the heroes of the work.

Founder of realism

The title of pioneer of this trend in Russian literature was rightfully awarded to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. He is the generally recognized founder of realism in Russia. "Boris Godunov" and "Eugene Onegin" are considered a shining example realism in Russian literature of those times. Also distinguishing examples were such works of Alexander Sergeevich as “Belkin’s Tales” and “ Captain's daughter».

IN creative works Pushkin gradually begins to develop classical realism. The writer’s portrayal of the personality of each character is comprehensive in an effort to describe the complexity of his inner world and state of mind, which unfold very harmoniously. Recreation of the experiences of a certain person, his moral character helps Pushkin overcome the self-will of the description of passions inherent in irrationalism.

Heroes A.S. Pushkin speaks to readers with open sides of your being. The writer pays special attention to describing the aspects of the human inner world, depicts the hero in the process of development and formation of his personality, which are influenced by the reality of society and the environment. This was due to his awareness of the need to depict a specific historical and national identity in the characteristics of the people.

Attention! Reality in Pushkin’s depiction collects an accurate, concrete image of details not only of the inner world a certain character, but also the world that surrounds it, including its detailed generalization.

Neorealism in literature

New philosophical, aesthetic and everyday realities at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries contributed to a change in direction. Implemented twice, this modification acquired the name neorealism, which gained popularity during the 20th century.

Neorealism in literature consists of a variety of movements, since its representatives had different artistic approach to the image of reality, including characteristic features realistic direction. It is based on appeal to the traditions of classical realism XIX century, as well as to problems in the social, moral, philosophical and aesthetic spheres of reality. A good example containing all these features is the work of G.N. Vladimov “The General and His Army”, written in 1994.

critical realism artistic herzen

Guy de Maupassant (1850-1993): he passionately, painfully hated the bourgeois world and everything connected with it. He painfully searched for the antithesis of this world - and found it in the democratic strata of society, in the French people.

Works: short stories - “Pumpkin”, “Old Woman Sauvage”, “Madwoman”, “Prisoners”, “The Chair Weaver”, “Papa Simone”.

Romain Rolland (1866-1944): the meaning of being and creativity originally lay in the belief in the beautiful, the good, the bright, which never left the world - you simply need to be able to see, feel and convey it to people.

Works: novel "Jean Christoff", story "Pierre and Luce".

Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880): His work indirectly reflected contradictions french revolution mid-nineteenth century. The desire for truth and hatred of the bourgeoisie were combined in him with social pessimism and lack of faith in the people.

Works: novels - "Madame Bovary", "Salammbo", "Education of the Senses", "Bouvard and Pécuchet" (not finished), stories - "The Legend of Julian the Stranger", " simple soul", "Herodias", also created several plays and an extravaganza.

Stendhal (1783-1842): The work of this writer opens the period of classical realism. It was Stendhal who took precedence in substantiating the main principles and program for the formation of realism, theoretically stated in the first half of the 19th century, when romanticism still dominated, and soon brilliantly embodied in artistic masterpieces outstanding novelist of the time.

Works: novels - “The Parma Monastery”, “Armans”, “Lucien Leuven”, stories - “Vittoria Accoramboni”, “Duchess di Palliano”, “Cenci”, “Abbess of Castro”.

Charles Dickens (1812--1870): Dickens's works are full of deep drama, social contradictions he sometimes wears tragic character, which they did not have in the interpretation of writers of the 18th century. Dickens also touches on the life and struggles of the working class in his work.

Works: “Nicholas Nickleby”, “The Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewitt”, “Hard Times”, “Christmas Stories”, “Dombey and Son”, “The Antiquities Shop”.

William Thackeray (1811-1863): Polemicizing with the romantics, he demands strict truthfulness from the artist. "Even though the truth is not always pleasant, better than the truth there is nothing." The author is not inclined to portray a person as either an out-and-out scoundrel or an ideal being. Unlike Dickens, he avoided happy endings. Thackeray's satire is permeated with skepticism: the writer does not believe in the possibility of changing life. He enriched the English realistic novel by introducing the author's commentary.

Works: “The Book of Snobs”, “Vanity Fair”, “Pendennis”, “The Career of Barry Lyndon”, “The Ring and the Rose”.

Pushkin A.S. (1799-1837): founder of Russian realism. Pushkin is dominated by the idea of the Law, of the laws that determine the state of civilization, social structures, the place and significance of man, his independence and connection with the whole, the possibility of authorial judgments.

Works: “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Eugene Onegin”, “Belkin’s Tales”.

Gogol N.V. (1809-1852): a world far from any ideas about the law, vulgar everyday life, in which all concepts of honor and morality, conscience are mutilated - in a word, Russian reality, worthy of grotesque ridicule: “blame the evening mirror if you have a crooked face” .

Works: " Dead souls", "Notes of a Madman", "Overcoat".

Lermontov M.Yu. (1814-1841): sharp enmity with the divine world order, with the laws of society, lies and hypocrisy, all kinds of defense of individual rights. The poet strives for a specific image social environment, the life of an individual person: combining the features of early realism and mature romanticism into an organic unity.

Works: “Hero of Our Time”, “Demon”, “Fatalist”.

Turgenev I.S. (1818-1883): Turgenev is interested in the moral world of people from the people. The main feature of the cycle of stories was truthfulness, which contained the idea of liberation of the peasantry, represented the peasants as spiritual active people capable of independent activity. Despite his reverent attitude towards the Russian people, Turgenev the realist did not idealize the peasantry, seeing, like Leskov and Gogol, their shortcomings.

Works: “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”, “ Noble nest", "The day before".

Dostoevsky F.M. (1821-1881): Regarding Dostoevsky’s realism, they said that he had “fantastic realism.” D. believes that in exceptional, unusual situations, the most typical appears. The writer noticed that all his stories were not made up, but taken from somewhere. Main feature: Creation philosophical basis with a detective - there is murder everywhere.

Works: “Crime and Punishment”, “Idiot”, “Demons”, “Teenager”, “The Brothers Karamazov”.

Spiritual climate Western Europe after 1830 it changed significantly compared to the romantic era. The subjective idealism of the romantics was replaced by faith in the omnipotence of reason and science, and faith in progress. Two ideas determined the thinking of Europeans during this period - positivism (a direction in philosophy based on the collection of objective facts for the purpose of scientific analysis) and organicism (Darwin's evolutionary theory, extended to other areas of life). The 19th century is the century of rapid growth of science and technology, the rise social sciences, and this desire for scientificity penetrates into literature. Realist artists saw their task as describing in literature all the richness of the phenomena of the surrounding world, all the diversity of human types, that is, the science of the 19th century and realistic literature are imbued with the same spirit of collecting facts, systematizing and developing a consistent concept of reality. And the explanation of reality was given on the basis of the principles of evolution: in the life of society and the individual, the action of the same forces as in nature, similar mechanisms of natural selection, was seen.

By the thirties of the 19th century, the new system public relations. It was a bourgeois system, in which each individual was quite rigidly assigned to a certain social-class environment, that is, the time of romantic “freedom” and “restlessness” of a person had passed. In classical bourgeois society, an individual’s belonging to a certain class appeared as immutable law being, and accordingly became the principle of the artistic development of life. Therefore, realists use the discoveries of the romantics in the field of psychology, but fit a newly understood person into a historically accurate, contemporary life. For realists, man is determined primarily by the socio-historical environment, and realism is based on the principle of social-class determinism.

The realists' perception of human character also changed. For the Romantics, exceptional character was a subjective asset individual; hero realistic work- always a unique product of interaction historical process and specific (biological, individual, random) circumstances, therefore life experience Realists understand each person as unique and valuable by this very uniqueness, and, on the other hand, the life experience of each person is of general, universal interest, because it contains repeatable, universal features. Here lies the basis of the realistic doctrine of type, the basis of realistic typification.

Realists directly inherited from the romantics the intrinsic value of the human personality they discovered, but assigned this personality to a specific place, time, and environment. Realistic art is democratic - realists first brought to the stage " little man", which was not previously considered interesting object for literature, his rights were restored. Realistic literature is generally imbued with an optimistic spirit: while criticizing contemporary society, realist writers were confident in the effectiveness of their criticism, in the fact that this society could be improved and reformed, and they believed in the inevitability of progress.

Realism of the 19th century sought to cover life as widely as possible, to show all the details social order, all types human relations, which, of course, required works of large volumes. This is partly why the novel becomes the leading genre in the literature of realism - the genre of a large epic narrative in which there is a place for all this gigantic life material. Especially on early stage Realism novels were distinguished by a greater volume than is customary today. In addition, the novel was in the 19th century the newest of the existing genres, that is, a genre without the burden of canonical tradition.

The novel is a genre open to everything new; the novelist explores life freely and impartially, without knowing in advance where his artistic search will lead him. In this way, the novel is akin to the spirit of scientific research; this side of the novel was emphasized by realists XIX century, and under their pen the genre turned into a tool for research and knowledge of reality, external and internal conflicts human life. A realistic novel reflects reality in the forms of life itself, and since the era of realism the concept of " fiction"begins to be associated no longer with poetry and drama, but primarily with prose. The novel becomes the dominant genre of world literature.

G.K. Kosikov writes: “The main feature of the romantic situation is the change in the internal and external position of the hero in the course of various clashes with the world around him.” In a realistic novel, as a rule, the “positive” hero opposes as a bearer of the ideal existing forms social hostel, but, unlike romantic literature, in a realistic novel, the discord between the hero and the world does not turn into a complete break. The hero may reject his immediate environment, but never rejects the world as a whole; he always retains the hope of realizing his subjective world in some other spheres of existence. Therefore, a realistic novel is based simultaneously on the contradiction between the hero and the world and on a deep internal community between them. The search for the hero of a realistic novel in the first stages of its existence was limited to the sphere of social circumstances offered by history. In the 19th century, the social mobility of the individual increased sharply; the example of Napoleon's fantastic career became a model of change social status for new generations. This new phenomenon of reality was reflected in the creation of such genre variety realistic novel as a "career novel". Let's consider it using the example of the works of the creators of the realistic novel, Stendhal and Balzac.

In creativity Griboedova, and especially Pushkin, the method of critical realism is emerging. But it turned out to be stable only in Pushkin, who went forward and higher. Griboedov, however, did not maintain the heights achieved in “Woe from Wit.” In the history of Russian literature, he is an example of the author of one classic work. And the poets of the so-called “Pushkin galaxy” (Delvig, Yazykov, Boratynsky) turned out to be unable to pick up this discovery of his. Russian literature still remained romantic.

Only ten years later, when “Masquerade”, “The Inspector General”, “Arabesques” and “Mirgorod” were created, and Pushkin was at the zenith of his fame (“ Queen of Spades", "The Captain's Daughter"), in this chordal coincidence of three different geniuses of realism, the principles of the realistic method were strengthened in its sharp individual forms that revealed his inner potential. The main types and genres of creativity were covered, the emergence of realistic prose was especially significant, which was recorded as a sign of the times Belinsky in the article “On the Russian story and Gogol’s stories” (1835).

Realism looks different among its three founders.

IN artistic concept world, Pushkin the realist is dominated by the idea of the Law, of the laws that determine the state of civilization, social structures, the place and significance of man, his self-sufficiency and connection with the whole, the possibility of authorial judgments. Pushkin looks for laws in educational theories, in moral universal human values, V historical role Russian nobility, in the Russian popular revolt. Finally, in Christianity and the “Gospel”. Hence the universal acceptability and harmony of Pushkin despite all the tragedy of his personal fate.

U Lermontov- on the contrary: sharp enmity with the divine world order, with the laws of society, lies and hypocrisy, all possible defense of individual rights.

U Gogol- a world far from any ideas about the law, vulgar everyday life, in which all concepts of honor and morality, conscience are mutilated - in a word, Russian reality, worthy of grotesque ridicule: “blame the evening mirror if your face is crooked.”

However, in this case, realism turned out to be the lot of geniuses, literature remained romantic ( Zagoskin, Lazhechnikov, Kozlov, Veltman, V. Odoevsky, Venediktov, Marlinskny, N. Polevoy, Zhadovskaya, Pavlova, Krasov, Kukolnik, I. Panaev, Pogorelsky, Podolinsky, Polezhaev and others.).

There was controversy in the theater about Mochalova to Karatygina, that is, between the romantics and the classicists.

And only ten years later, that is, around 1845, in the works of young writers of the “natural school” ( Nekrasov, Turgenev, Goncharov, Herzen, Dostoevsky and many others) realism finally wins and becomes mass creativity. “Natural school” is the true reality of Russian literature. If one of the followers is now trying to renounce her, belittle the significance organizational forms and its consolidation, influence Belinsky, then he is deeply mistaken. We are assured that there was no “school”, but there was a “band” through which various stylistic trends passed. But what is a "streak"? We will again come to the concept of “school”, which was not at all distinguished by the uniformity of talents; it had precisely different stylistic movements (compare, for example, Turgenev and Dostoevsky), two powerful internal flows: realistic and actually naturalistic (V. Dal, Bupsov , Grebenka, Grigorovich, I. Panaev, Kulchitsky, etc.).

With the death of Belinsky, the “school” did not die, although it lost its theorist and inspirer. It grew into a powerful literary movement; its main figures - realist writers - became the glory of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century. Those who did not formally belong to the “school” and did not experience the preliminary stage of romantic development joined this powerful trend. Saltykov, Pisemsky, Ostrovsky, S. Aksakov, L. Tolstoy.

Throughout the second half of the 19th century century, the realistic direction reigns supreme in Russian literature. Its dominance partly extends to the beginning of the 20th century, if we keep in mind Chekhov and L. Tolstoy. Realism in general can be qualified as critical, socially accusatory. Honest, truthful Russian literature could not be anything else in the country of serfdom and autocracy.

Some theorists, disillusioned with socialist realism, consider it a sign good manners refuse the definition of “critical” in relation to the old classical realism XIX century. But the criticism of realism of the last century is further evidence that it had nothing in common with the obsequious “what do you want?” on which the Bolshevik was built socialist realism, which destroyed Soviet literature.

It's a different matter if we raise the question of the internal typological varieties of Russian critical realism. From his ancestors - Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol- realism appeared in its various types, just as it was also diverse among realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.

It lends itself most easily to thematic classification: works from the nobility, merchants, bureaucrats, peasant life- from Turgenev to Zlatovratsky. The genre classification is more or less clear: family and everyday, chronicle genre - from S.T. Aksakov to Garin-Mikhailovsky; estate romance with the same elements of family and everyday life, love relationship, only at a more mature age stage of the heroes’ development, in a more generalized typification, with a weak ideological element. IN " Ordinary history“The clashes between the two Aduevs are age-related, not ideological. There was also the genre of socio-social novel, which are “Oblomov” and “Fathers and Sons”. But the perspectives on which problems are viewed are different. In “Oblomov” the good inclinations in Ilyusha, when he is still a playful child, and their burial as a result of lordship and idleness are examined stage by stage. At Turgenev's famous novel- “ideological” clash of “fathers” and “sons”, “principles” and “nihilism”, the superiority of commoners over nobles, new trends of the times.

The most difficult task- establishment of typology and specific modifications of realism on a methodological basis. All writers of the second half of the 19th century are realists. But what types does realism itself differentiate into?

One can single out writers whose realism accurately reflects the forms of life itself. Such are Turgenev and Goncharov and everyone who came from the “natural school”. Nekrasov also has many of these life forms. But in his best poems - “Frost - Red Nose”, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” - he is very inventive, resorting to folklore, fantasy, parables, parabolas and allegories. Plot motivations connecting the episodes in last poem, - purely fabulous, the characteristics of the heroes - seven men-truth-seekers - are built on stable folklore repetitions. In Nekrasov’s poem “Contemporaries” there is a torn composition, the modeling of images is purely grotesque.

Herzen has a completely unique critical realism: there are no forms of life here, but “heartfelt humanistic thought.” Belinsky noted the Voltairean style of his talent: “the talent went into the mind.” This mind turns out to be a generator of images, a biography of personalities, the totality of which, according to the principle of contrast and fusion, reveals the “beauty of the universe.” These properties have already appeared in “Who is to Blame?” But Herzen’s graphic humanistic thought was expressed in full force in Past and Thoughts. Herzen puts the most abstract concepts into living images: for example, idealism forever, but unsuccessfully, trampled materialism “with its disembodied feet.” Tyufyaev and Nicholas I, Granovsky and Belinsky, Dubelt and Benckendorf appear as human types and types of thought, state-state and creative. These qualities of talent make Herzen similar to Dostoevsky, the author of “ideological” novels. But Herzen’s portraits are strictly painted according to social characteristics, go back to “forms of life,” while in Dostoevsky, ideologism is more abstract, more infernal and hidden in the depths of the personality.

Another type of realism appears extremely clearly in Russian literature - satirical, grotesque, such as we find in Gogol and Shchedrin. But not only them. There is satire and grotesque in separate images Ostrovsky (Murzavetsky, Gradoboev, Khlynov), Sukhovo-Kobylin (Varravin, Tarelkin), Leskova (Levsha, Onopry Peregud) and others. Grotesque is not simple hyperbole or fantasy. This is the combination in images, types, plots into a single whole of what does not happen in natural life, but what is possible in the artistic imagination as a technique in order to identify a certain social pattern. In Gogol, most often - the quirks of an inert mind, the unreasonableness of the current situation, the inertia of habit, the routine of generally accepted opinion, the illogical, taking the form of logical: Khlestakov's lies about his life in St. Petersburg, his characterizations of the mayor and officials of the provincial outback in a letter to Tryapichkin. The very possibility of Chichikov’s commercial tricks with dead souls is based on the fact that in feudal reality it was easy to buy and sell living souls. Shchedrin draws his grotesque techniques from the world of the bureaucratic apparatus, the quirks of which he has studied well. U ordinary people It is impossible that instead of brains in our heads there would be either minced meat or an automatic organ. But in the heads of Foolov's pompadours, everything is possible. In Swiftian style, he “defamiliarizes” a phenomenon, depicts the impossible as possible (the debate between the Pig and the Truth, the boy “in pants” and the boy “without pants”). Shchedrin masterfully reproduces the casuistry of bureaucratic chicanery, the awkward logic of reasoning of self-confident despots, all these governors, heads of departments, chief clerks, and quarterly officers. Their empty philosophy is firmly established: “Let the law stand in the closet”, “The average person is always to blame for something”, “The bribe has finally died and a jackpot has appeared in its place”, “Enlightenment is useful only when it has an unenlightened character”, “ I’m sure I won’t tolerate it!”, “Slap him.” The verbiage of government officials and the mellifluous idle talk of Judushka Golovlev are reproduced in a psychologically insightful way.

Approximately in the 60-70s, another type of critical realism was formed, which can conditionally be called philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological. It's about primarily about Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy. Of course, both one and the other have many amazingeveryday paintings, thoroughly developed in the forms of life. In “The Brothers Karamazov” and “Anna Karenina” we will find “family thought”. And yet, with Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, a certain “teaching” is in the foreground, whether it be “soilism” or “simplification.” From this prism, realism intensifies in its piercing power.

But one should not think that philosophical, psychological realism is found only in these two giants of Russian literature. On a different artistic level, without the development of philosophical and ethical doctrines to the scale of an integral religious teaching, in specific forms it is also found in Garshin’s work, in such works as “Four Days” and “Red Flower”, which were clearly written with a specific thesis. The properties of this type of realism also appear in populist writers: in “The Power of the Earth” by G.I. Uspensky, in “Foundations” by Zlatovratsky. Leskov’s “difficult” talent is of the same nature; of course, with a certain preconceived idea, he portrayed his “righteous people”, “enchanted wanderers”, who loved to choose talented people from among the people, gifted by the grace of God, tragically doomed to death in their elemental existence.

Realism is usually called a movement in art and literature, whose representatives strived for a realistic and truthful reproduction of reality. In other words, the world was portrayed as typical and simple, with all its advantages and disadvantages.

General features of realism

Realism in literature differs in a number of ways common features. Firstly, life was depicted in images that corresponded to reality. Secondly, reality for representatives of this movement has become a means of understanding themselves and the world around them. Thirdly, the images on the pages literary works were distinguished by the truthfulness of details, specificity and typification. It is interesting that the art of the realists, with their life-affirming principles, sought to consider reality in development. Realists discovered new social and psychological relationships.

The emergence of realism

Realism in literature as a form artistic creation arose during the Renaissance, developed during the Enlightenment and emerged as an independent movement only in the 30s of the 19th century. The first realists in Russia include the great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin (he is sometimes even called the founder of this movement) and no less outstanding writer N.V. Gogol with his novel “Dead Souls”. Regarding literary criticism, then within its limits the term “realism” appeared thanks to D. Pisarev. It was he who introduced the term into journalism and criticism. Realism in 19th century literature became distinctive feature of that time, having its own characteristics and characteristics.

Features of literary realism

Representatives of realism in literature are numerous. The most famous and outstanding writers include such writers as Stendhal, Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy, G. Flaubert, M. Twain, F.M. Dostoevsky, T. Mann, M. Twain, W. Faulkner and many others. They all worked on the development creative method realism and embodied in their works its most striking features in inextricable connection with their unique authorial characteristics.