Culture in a period of political fragmentation. From the 12th century
In the XII - XIV centuries. cultural development took place in difficult conditions feudal fragmentation Rus'. In the ancient Russian culture of this time, new successes are observed. The peculiarities of the culture of this time include the emergence of local differences in the cultural life of individual lands. In the presence of common ground already in the 12th century, dialects with local linguistic features appeared in isolated lands. Local features appear in chronicle writing, architecture and painting. At the same time, the all-Russian principles of culture are preserved. The cities of Kyiv, Chernihiv, Galich, Kholm, and others were important centers of ancient Russian culture in the south.
Despite the feudal fragmentation, the desire for unity was reflected in the literary works of the XII century. In particular, the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" expressed deep concern about the fate of the Russian land, made an ardent appeal to the princes to stop strife, unite and organize a rebuff to the nomads.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the nature of chronicle writing changes. There are new centers in Chernigov, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky, etc. Family and tribal princely annals, biography of princes are written.
In Zvenigorod and Brest, birch-bark letters were found, as well as in some cities bronze devices for writing on wax tablets, which indicates the development of education. Educated people who knew foreign languages worked in the princely offices. They prepared the texts of letters, conducted diplomatic correspondence. The texts of the letters of the Galician-Volyn princes written in Latin have been preserved, with a demand to return the cloth from the ship that crashed to the merchants of the city of Vladimir.
The architecture of the region has reached great development. The Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir (1160) has been preserved. It repeats the plan of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In the cities of Galicia, the construction of churches made of white stone began, various ornaments began to be widely practiced.
Icon painting developed in the Galicia-Volyn lands under the influence of the Kyiv school. The icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria has come down to us by the 13th - 14th centuries. (Lutsk), the icon of Yuri the serpent fighter on a black horse (XIV century).
Many valuable monuments of that time perished. But what we know also speaks of an upsurge in the cultural life of the people.
Thus, Kievan Rus was a country of highly developed culture. Already in the 11th century, it reached the level of the countries of Europe and had two centuries of its statehood. The period of feudal fragmentation in the development of culture was accompanied by the development of local styles in fine and applied arts, architecture and chronicle writing. The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, although it slowed down the pace of cultural development, not only did not interrupt it, but even partly enriched it. At the junction of the interaction of Slavic and Turkic culture new phenomena begin to emerge in language, everyday life, customs, art, which will manifest themselves especially clearly in the next era.
Cultural processes in the Lithuanian-Polish period of Ukrainian history (mid. XIV - mid. XVII century) Plan
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
3. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture
1. Historical conditions for the development and formation of Ukrainian culture. The struggle of Ukrainians against cultural assimilation
In difficult historical conditions, the development of Ukrainian culture took place in a period that chronologically coincides with the Renaissance in Western Europe.
Having become part of the Commonwealth, Ukraine fell into the sphere of stimulating influence of the West. At the same time, the struggle of Ukrainians for the preservation of cultural identity for many centuries becomes main theme their history, their culture.
In Europe at that time, all ideological disputes and contradictions, in the end, came down to religion. In Ukraine, it was a discussion between the defenders of Orthodoxy and adherents of Catholicism. The role of Orthodoxy in public life Ukrainians has grown many times over. In the absence of a state, the church was the only means of social self-expression and national unity. But, the Ukrainian church in this period was going through hard times.
The Grand Dukes of Lithuania, and then the Polish kings, enjoyed the right of patronage. Moreover, they appointed the Kyiv Metropolitan himself. Corruption was the worst offspring of the patronage system. In this state of affairs, the cultural influence of the church was very limited.
Brotherhoods played an important role in supporting Orthodoxy - public organizations merchants, artisans and other strata of Ukrainian society. They appeared in the 15th century. But their role intensified especially in the second half of the 16th century due to increased oppression. Orthodox religion in the Commonwealth.
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
Traditions have been preserved in the field of education Kievan Rus. Schools existed at large churches and monasteries, as well as on the estates of large magnates. Gradually, the number of schools increased. In the second half of the XVI century. they operated in Lvov, Rovno, Kremenchug, Zabludovo, Vladimir-Volynsky and other places.
With the development of the reform movement in Ukraine, Protestant schools appear. In Goshcha, Belz, Lvov, Berestechka, there were schools of the Lutheran and Calvinist directions - mostly primary, but in some places secondary ones. After the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, Uniate schools appeared in a number of cities. The most numerous among non-Orthodox schools were Catholic. From the 70s of the 16th century, on the territory of the Commonwealth, they deployed vigorous activity on the establishment of schools by the Jesuits.
Thus, in late XVI V. in Ukraine there were a large number of schools that differed in the level of teaching and religious affiliation. They contributed to the development of education. At the same time, Uniate and Catholic schools defended the ideological and political goals of the ruling circles of the Commonwealth. The Ukrainian public understood this. Ukrainian cultural figures took up the organization of national schools that would operate on a national basis, and in terms of content and level of education would meet the needs of the time.
In 1576, a cultural and educational center appeared in Ostrog in Volhynia. Its founder was Prince Ostrozhsky, a representative of an old Ukrainian Orthodox family. An integral part of the cultural and educational center was a school founded no later than 1578. It marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of school education in Ukraine. According to the content of education, the Ostroh school founded the "Slavic-Greek-Latin type" of schools in Ukraine. The first rector of the school was Gerasim Smotrytsky.
Fraternal schools have opened a new page in the history of national education. In 1585, the first fraternal school in Ukraine appeared in Lvov. At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. such schools also appear in Rohatyn, Gorodok, Przemysl, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, Nemirov, Kamenets-Podolsky, Kyiv and in other cities and villages (about 30 in total). Fraternal schools resisted Polonization, educating Ukrainian youth in the spirit of patriotism and respect for their people, national history, language, culture, faith of the fathers. A significant place was given to the study of the foundations of the Orthodox religion. The main attention was paid to the study of the Slavic and Ukrainian languages. By tradition, they studied Greek and Latin. It was not easy to take root in Ukrainian educational institutions the Latin language, since everything Catholic, Polish was associated with it. However, knowledge of Latin was the influence of the time: without it it was impossible to enter European culture and science. Latin language was then the language of scientists, philosophers, poets, the language of teaching at universities and international communication. And the Ukrainian polemists, who were trained in fraternal schools for qualified, well-founded ideological discussions, had to thoroughly master the language of the enemy.
This led to the emergence and development in Ukraine of Slavic-Greek-Latin schools, whose students studied languages and mastered the program of "seven free sciences". Thus, the work begun in Ostrog was continued by fraternal schools.
In 1632, the first higher institution in Ukraine, which was called a collegium (colleges in Poland were called educational institutions of a higher type). Calling the new school a collegium, Peter Mogila, her guardian and mentor, proceeded, first of all, from the level of education that she could provide. Thus, an important step was taken in the formation higher education in Ukraine
The educational activity of the Grave was not limited to the founding of the Kyiv Collegium. He headed a circle of Lavra scholars, for 20 years led the book publishing business in Ukraine, founded schools and printing houses in various Ukrainian cities. For the most part, Mogila wrote his works in simple language, trying to convey their content to the broad masses of the people. A new stage in the development of polemical literature is associated with his name.
The Kiev collegium was a higher educational institution of the humanitarian type. However, despite all the efforts of Peter Mohyla and his followers, it never received the status of an academy from the Polish government. And it is not surprising, since she not only taught the youth the higher sciences, but also trained the ideologists of the people's liberation movement, brought up the defenders of national culture and faith.
The first official document that the Kiev Academy received in confirmation of the status of a higher school was a royal charter in 1701.
Lviv University (1661) also played a certain role in the development of education in Ukraine, although this educational institution was founded with the aim of Polonizing the Ukrainian population.
2. New phenomena in folklore and literature. The development of artistic culture.
At the end of the XIV - in the first half of the XVI century. The development of folk art of Ukrainians took place on the basis of ancient Russian folklore traditions, in the conditions of the struggle of the peasantry and the urban population against feudal oppression and foreign invaders. At the same time, new historical and social conditions gave rise to new forms of folklore. For example, ritual poetry was largely freed from cult elements. Tales, proverbs, sayings were created in the folk language.
Despite persecution by the church, the folk rituals: caroling, generosity, Kupala holiday. The clergy condemned these rituals, but at the same time tried to adapt them to their needs. Stoneflies, mermaid rituals and songs continued to be preserved. Ritual poetry gives rise to social (primarily anti-feudal) motifs and moods.
In the 15th century, the epic poetry of the Ukrainian people appeared - historical songs and thoughts. performed them folk singers- kobzars. The emergence of thoughts is associated with the birth of the Cossacks and has its roots in the heroic epic of Kievan Rus. One of the most famous and oldest is “The Duma about the Cossack Golota”. Dumas and historical songs-ballads instilled in the masses a sense of love for the motherland, aroused protest against its enemies and the oppression of the pans, and glorified the heroes of the people. Oral folk art played a big role in the formation and development of the literature of the Ukrainian people.
In the annals of the XIV - the first half of the XVI centuries. the traditions of Kievan Rus continued. Important chronicle works of this period were the “Brief Kiev Chronicle of the XIV - XV centuries.” and the so-called "Lithuanian" or "Western Russian annals". The brief Kievan chronicle, which used ancient Russian chronicles, also provides valuable information on the history of Ukraine in the 14th - 16th centuries, in particular on the struggle against the Crimean Tatars, the Lithuanian-Russian war, describes the actions of Prince K. Ostrozhsky on the battlefields (in particular near Orsha in 1515). The story ends with praise for Ostrozhsky. In separate "Lithuanian" chronicles, facts are given about the "departures" of Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords in Russian state. The idea of Russian chronicles about the unity of the historical process of all East Slavic lands found a response in the Ukrainian lands enslaved by Lithuania and Poland.
During this period, new church literary works also appeared: epistles, "words", lives of saints, etc. A remarkable literary monument of that era was the Kiev-Pechersk Paterikon. Along with the life of monks and stories about various miracles in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, it contained many facts from public life, as well as about the life of monks. Of great importance were also the collections of the lives of the saints Cheti-Minei (XV century).
Simultaneously with the ideas of humanism, the Reformation came to Ukraine from the West. Under his influence, the literary and popular language converged, and attempts were made to make the Bible accessible to the general public. For this purpose, the books of Holy Scripture were translated into the vernacular. For example, the Peresopnitsky gospel. A number of copies of this Gospel have come down to us, decorated with headpieces, initials, miniatures, and ornaments in the Renaissance style.
Along with religious literature, secular literature begins to develop. A vivid evidence of this is the collection "Izmaragd", which contained about a hundred works written in the "word" genre on moral and everyday topics: about book wisdom, about respect for teachers, about integrity and sins, as well as about rich and poor. In the XV century. there are also translated stories about Alexander the Great (Alexandria), about the Trojan War and others. These works reveal the exploits, courage and courage of the heroes, and at the same time fully depict the reality of that time, the views of different sectors of society on modern or political phenomena and events.
In the second half of the 16th century in Ukrainian literature there are phenomena characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance: - the formation and development of new genres: polemical journalism, versification, memoir-historical prose, school dramaturgy.
In 1574, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published The Apostle, the first book of Ukrainian printing. A deep imprint in Ukrainian literature was left by the works of representatives of polemical literature G. Smotrytsky, S. Zizania, H. Filaret, M. Smotrytsky, Z. Kopystensky.
The pinnacle of polemical literature was the work of I. Vishensky, who branded the betrayal of renegade bishops, criticized the entire political and state system of the Commonwealth, in defense of the rights and human dignity of the common people.
Religious controversy with Catholicism, Uniatism, Protestantism is reflected in the literature of the second half of XVII V. (L. Baranovich, I. Galyatovsky, F. Safonovich, V. Yasinsky and others). Oratory - preaching prose found its further development in the work of K. Stavrovetsky, the author of the "Teaching Gospel" (1619), Daniil Korsunsky at the end of the 16th century. described his journey to the "holy places" ("Book of conversation about the way of Jerusalem").
From the second half of the XVI century. new forms of historical prose gained popularity (testament of V. Zagorovsky, 1577; recollection of the Moscow events of 1612 by B. Balyka; Ostrozhskaya 1500 - 1636; Lvovskaya (1498 - 1649); Khmelnitskaya (1636 - 1650) ; Gustynskaya (20s of the 17th century) chronicles, etc.).
From the middle of the XVI century. originates Ukrainian book versification.
At the end of the XVI century. - the beginning of the 17th century. dramaturgy is born in the form of recitations and dialogues intended for performance in fraternal schools: “At Christmas ...” by P. Berynda (Lvov, 1616), etc.
The liberation war of the Ukrainian people in the middle of the 17th century ideologically and aesthetically reoriented Ukrainian literature, brought it closer to Russian literature. Literature began to free itself from religious ideology. Actual problems of social and political life began to be posed and solved in works of art.
At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XVI centuries. in the work of artists there was a closer connection with the life and interests of the masses. In the art of this time, interest in man increased, his spiritual world and also to nature. Ukrainian artists creatively developed the traditions of art of past centuries, enriched their skills, assimilating the achievements of artists from other countries, in particular, the influence of the Western European Renaissance can be traced. Iconography flourishes, preserved mainly in the Western Ukrainian lands (Przemysl, Lvov, etc.). Icons arranged in a certain order formed a separate composition - the iconostasis. Over time, the structure of the iconostasis became more complex; it became an integral part of the interior of the temple.
In Ukrainian icon painting of the XV - XVI centuries. the influence of the Moscow school is manifested (“Archangel Gabriel” from the village of Dalyava, Lviv region of the 15th century). Sometimes the Gothic influences of Western Europe are felt (“Peter and Vasily” from the village of Lesyatichi, Lviv region of the 15th century).
Miniatures of handwritten works have a high artistic value: "The Life of Boris and Gleb", and "The Radzivilov Chronicle".
The beginning of printing contributed to the further development of the art of book design. In the artistic culture of the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII centuries. there were significant changes in content and form, new genres of art (including secular ones) developed. A painted and sculptural portrait appeared (“Portrait of K. Kornyakt”, early 17th century), a tombstone of K. Ostrozhsky in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, 1579. F. Senkovich, N. Petrakhnovich, S. Korunka were outstanding artists of this time.
Thanks to printing, engraving became one of the leading types of graphics. Engravings (mainly on wood) illustrated books published in Ukrainian printing houses.
In the architecture of the period under review in Ukraine, the traditions of ancient Russian architecture continued to develop and improve. The architecture of this period acquires a fortified character, it is characterized by severity and grandeur, the limitation of decorative ornaments. Fortifications, ditches and ramparts were erected around the cities. The layout of the streets was radial (Lutsk, Medzhybizh) and radial - ring (Vladimir - Volynsky, Putivl), some cities had an irregular layout (Kyiv, Nizhyn).
The compositional center of the city was formed: - the main market square with the town hall, which had a high tower and a cathedral. Both wooden and stone architecture developed. In the first half of the XVI century. in architecture, a new form of castles appears - castles-palaces, in which living quarters were located along the inner perimeter of the palace. They built open two-story arcades - galleries with large windows; and the outer walls of the castles were defensive in nature and had loopholes (the castle in Berezhany, Ternopil region, mid-XVI century).
Monasteries were built - fortresses.
In connection with the development of crafts and trade, old and new cities grew, and in them public buildings - town halls, houses of craft shops, new types of two - three-story residential buildings: on the ground floor there were shops, various workshops, on the upper floors - living quarters.
On the western lands of Ukraine, which were in closer relations with Western Europe, in the architecture of residential buildings, the forms of the Italian Renaissance in a peculiar local interpretation were increasingly manifested (for example, the house of Kornyakt, architect P. Barbon, 1572 - 1582, Lviv). In religious construction, temples spread, the walls of which, built of white stone or brick, did not have decorations (the Church of the Intercession in Lutsk); centric, so-called churches - rotundas (village Gotryani near Uzhgorod); three-nave churches with 1, 3, 5 domes (Epiphany Church in Ostrog).
New trends are emerging in iconic architecture. The main customers for the construction are the gentry, urban and rural communities, whose tastes and aesthetic ideals influenced church architecture. The relationship with the advanced humanistic culture of Western Europe also affected. All these trends were reflected in the construction of domeless temples. The completed type of church-fortress is the Church of the Intercession in Sutkivtsy (XV century).
After the liberation war of the Ukrainian people, a new stage in the development of architecture began. The influx of population to the Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina caused fast development old cities (Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslav) and the emergence of new ones (Kharkov, Sumy, Akhtyrka, Lebedin, Poltava).
In the XV-XVI centuries. there is a new look heroic epic- thoughts, kobzar art, instrumental music-making among bandura players developed.
In the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium (since 1701 - the Academy), musical notation was studied, choral singing and playing musical instruments were widespread, there was a choir and a symphony orchestra. There were also choirs in Chernigov, Kharkov and Pereyaslav collegiums.
During this period, Jesuit school theaters appeared in Ukraine (Lvov, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, etc.). They staged dramas written in Latin, and later in Polish.
Thus, despite the difficult political conditions, heavy social oppression and religious oppression, the culture of the Ukrainian people continued to develop. She, relying on ancient Russian traditions, achieved success in many areas.
invaders and natural disasters led to the death of many precious works of architecture, painting, applied art and literature. Almost no names survived. ordinary people, who created for secular and spiritual feudal lords "worn out by various cunning" masterpieces of wall painting and stone carving, the finest silver chasing and monumental architecture. Only a few of the Russian masters are mentioned in the chronicles that have come down to us.
The Russian language and culture were enriched as a result of interaction with the culture of a number of peoples. This interaction is reflected in Suzdal architecture(which traces links with Georgian and Armenian architecture ), in Novgorod painting(in which there are common motifs with the Armenian fresco painting), V folklore and literature, where there are numerous references to other peoples, their culture and way of life.
Despite the dominance of theology, with the growth of experience accumulated in production and the development of enlightenment (although it affected only an insignificant part of society), the rudiments of knowledge in the field of studying nature and history. noticeably literacy grew among the feudal nobility, nobility and townspeople. The development of historical knowledge was vividly reflected in chronicles. In all large cities, from Novgorod to Kholm, from Novgorod to Ryazan, historical chronicles were kept and chronicles were compiled (holistic historical works, representing the processing of annalistic records). Until our time, only the annals of Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn and Novgorod have been partially preserved.
In Rus', as well as in other countries, there was a close connection between the development crafts, applied folk art and architecture. Since religious ideology dominated society, the best examples of architecture were associated with the church, which was also a rich customer. With the transition to feudal fragmentation, architectural monuments became characterized by reduced sizes of temples, the simplification of their interior decoration, and the gradual replacement of mosaics by frescoes. The "cubic" temple with a heavy dome became the dominant type of church architecture. These changes were also associated with the rapid spread of stone architecture.
IN fine arts stylistic diversity increased, and local folk art often came into conflict with the dominant church ideology.
Applied arts and sculpture, less than painting related church canons, often reflected in their plots folk games and dances, scenes of struggle, etc. The art of minting coins, seals, and stone carving (decoration of cathedrals, stone icons, etc.) reached a significant rise. The motifs of folk art are richly reflected in embroidery, as well as in book decorations - headpieces, endings, capital letters, etc., where, along with floral and color ornaments, scenes are often presented. folk life and labor.
In monuments literature period of feudal fragmentation carried out the ideas of the ruling class. In her best creations, calling on the princes for peace and the defense of the independence of the motherland, the aspirations of the broad masses of the people are also reflected.
Church preaching literature, the ideological orientation of which was to call the population to obedience to the authorities of heaven and earth, is represented by the works of Kliment Smolyatich, Kirill Turovsky and others.
As part of the annalistic vaults, stories about princes (about Andrey Bogolyubsky, Izyaslav Mstislavich Volynsky, etc.), about large historical events- about the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, etc. There are many details in these stories that testify to the growing interest in the human person, in the actions and experiences of individuals.
The greatest monument of Russian culture of the XII century. is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
The development of Russian culture in the XII-XIII centuries. took place in close connection with the further development of the Russian nationality.
In the Russian land and during the period of feudal fragmentation, mutual language(in the presence of different dialects) and the general civil and church legal norms were in force. The people were alien to feudal strife and kept the memory of the former unity of Rus'. This was reflected primarily in epics.
In the 12th century Kievan Rus breaks up into dozens of feudal principalities, by the 15th century. their number reaches 250. They are distinguished by their own features of cultural development. Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and other art schools were formed.
Are being created epics, cycles historical songs, local (regional) annals.
architecture distinguishes the combination local traditions with Byzantine and Western European elements Romanesque style. Becomes typical single-domed temple.
After Batu invasion Mongol-Tatar troops destroyed many temples, books and icons perished, monumental stone architecture was suspended for half a century. During Mongol-Tatar rule(1240–1480) Russian culture suffered enormous damage.
In the 14th-15th centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art. Not affected by the Mongol invasion, it preserved the cultural values of pre-Mongol Rus, including those found in 1951. birch bark letters.
From the second floor. 14th c. starts national and cultural upsurge associated with the victory at the Kulikovo field (1380) and the unifying role of Moscow.
23. Culture of the Muscovite state in the 14th-17th centuries
The center of the state and cultural revival becomes Muscovy. Moscow was the center all-Russian chronicle And ecclesiastical capital.
In the 16th century under Ivan the Terrible created:
10 volumes "Cheti-Minei"(“Monthly Readings” - biographies of Russian saints, compiled by months);
"Power Book"- presentation of Russian history from Vladimir the Baptist to Ivan the Terrible;
set of rules and regulations "Domostroy".
First attempts typography belong to 1553. Seven anonymous books have been preserved from that time.
All R. 16th century in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible creates the first state printing house, wherein Ivan Fedorov And Petr Mstislavets March 1, 1564 "Apostle", in 1565 - "Book of Hours" and then other books.
At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. Moscow turns into a capital single centralized state, stronghold orthodoxy. This is reinforced by the monk Philotheus put forward in the beginning. 16th century theory "Moscow - the third Rome", which receives a monumental design in architecture.
From con. 15th c. the white-stone Kremlin is being rebuilt. Italian craftsmen dress it in red brick. To the beginning 16th century on the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin are being rebuilt or rebuilt Uspensky, Blagoveshchensky And Archangel Cathedral.
In the 16th–18th centuries traditional for wooden architecture is introduced into stone construction marquee style(Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square, etc.).
Painting this period is represented by icons and frescoes Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The icon painting of Russian Bogomaz artists is a masterpiece of not only domestic, but also world culture.
non the threshold of the New Age. In the 17th century the history of the patriarchal ancient Russian culture, permeated with the church worldview, is coming to an end. The “secularization” of culture begins (strengthening of its secular character).
In the second floor. 17th century began to appear realistic trend in painting - in the icons of Simon Ushakov ("The Savior Not Made by Hands", etc.), in parsing(corrupted from lat. a person face, personality). this was the name given to portraits of real historical figures painted in the tradition of icon painting (a transitional stage to a secular portrait).
Appears rhymed poetry(Simeon Polotsky), dramatic works. First court theater in Russia (1672-1676) existed for 4 years at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
In 1687 (during the regency of Princess Sophia) the first Russian institution of higher education- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, three all-Russian cultural centers were formed around Galich, Novgorod and Vladimir. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each of them developed its own aesthetic environment, developed its own artistic ideals, its own understanding and expression of beauty. And this did not testify to the collapse of the ancient Russian nationality and its culture. Despite the existence of local schools, styles, and traditions, the Old Russian culture continued to be fundamentally united. The time of feudal fragmentation was not a time of decline, but a flourishing of ancient Russian culture.
chronicle writing
From the 12th century starts new period in the history of Russian chronicle writing. Chronicles began to be kept in all principalities, and chronicle writing acquires a regional character. Apart from Kiev and Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities become the most significant centers of chronicle writing. Local chroniclers focused on local events, but considered the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of the Russian state and kept The Tale of Bygone Years as part of the local chronicles. Ancestral princely annals appear - biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. Appeared in local chronicles personality traits. So, for the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, which tells about events in the life of the Galicia-Volyn principality from early XIII V. until 1292, secular and poetic manner of presentation are characteristic. The chronicle pays the main attention to the struggle of princely power with the recalcitrant boyars. The Novgorod chronicle is especially distinguished by its local character. Novgorod chroniclers describe in detail the events of inner-Novgorod life from the 11th to the 15th centuries. from the position of the boyars, eminent merchants and other representatives of the ruling class. The Novgorod chronicle reflects the life of Novgorod with its turbulent political events and fierce struggle both between the various clans of the richest landowners and owners, and between various social groups Novgorod land. At the same time, the style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by its simplicity and efficiency, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir princes claimed all-Russian primacy, so the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers sought to give their annals an all-Russian character, to present themselves and their land as the successors of Kievan Rus, and for this they widely used religious argumentation, which was not the case in other chronicle centers.
Literature
High level of development of culture and literature of the X-XI centuries. paved the way for the creation in the 80s of the XII century. a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The "Word" is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. That campaign had on contemporaries strong impression, as it was accompanied by a number of unique circumstances: solar eclipse, the death of most of the Russian troops, the capture and escape of Igor. The author not only tells about the events of the campaign, but also reflects on what happened, expresses his attitude to what happened, evaluates the campaign and the defeat of Igor in comparison with the events of the history of his country, with his thoughts about the fate of the Russian land. The author of the "Lay" is unknown; the solution to his name has been worrying researchers for several centuries. Most likely, he was a resident of Southern Rus' and belonged to the highest stratum of the nobility - the boyars. But the unknown author was able to overcome the narrowness of the interests of his principality and estate and rise to the height of understanding of all-Russian interests. The author calls on the Russian princes to unite in the face of external danger and "stand up for the Russian land", to protect the southern borders of Rus'. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The "Word" told about the events of its time, at the same time, it is also a monument of historical thought. What is happening in it has something in common with past events from Russian history, which was rare at that moment. Usually the authors drew historical examples from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history. A feature of the historicism of this work is that the author tries to find the sources of current troubles in the past and refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when princely strife began in Rus', which led to the weakening of the country in the face of the Polovtsian danger. "The Word" is written extraordinary poetic language. Unusually expressive is the famous cry of Yaroslavna - Princess Efrosinya, Igor's wife. Yaroslavna begs the wind, the river, the sun not to harm the wounded prince and return him to his native land. The "Word" embodied the characteristic of the Russian Literature XII- XIII centuries. traits - connection with oral folk art, with historical reality, patriotism, citizenship.
Architecture
The period of feudal fragmentation is the time of extensive stone construction in all principalities. Beautiful cities were created in the capital cities architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, their own distinctive features. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the structures of the previous period by the smaller scale of buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and ease of decoration. A typical building was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence in architecture is weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joins the pan-European Romanesque style. This introduction did not affect the fundamentals ancient Russian architecture- the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. architectural buildings Galicia-Volyn lands are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the XIV century. Galicia-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. The Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv composition with Romanesque building techniques and elements of Romanesque decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kiev plinths, from which they erected temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and without pillars, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas- evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. ABOUT high level Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by the Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century) with its promising portal and carved capitals.
The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes turned into hired chiefs of a squad guarding the city with its possessions. The princes lose the citadel and St. Sophia Cathedral, which passes into the possession of the archbishop. The prince was evicted outside the city - on Gorodische, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settle down and build monasteries - fortresses with temples. Of the temples built by order of the princes, the most significant are the Annunciation, Nikolo - Dvorishchensky and St. George's Cathedrals of the St. George's Monastery. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is not typical for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the technique of mixed masonry, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is actually devoid of decor, since Novgorod limestone is loose, oversaturated with shells and is difficult to process. History has not conveyed to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod annals - "Master Peter". One of the brightest architectural schools period of feudal fragmentation became Vladimir-Suzdal. It began with the erection of the first stone temple in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh in the 11th century; its heyday falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). Vladimir princes pursued a policy that contributed to the birth of the Great Russian people in the North-East of Rus', laying the foundations of a new Russian statehood. The Vladimir-Suzdal architectural school was distinguished by solemnity, elegance, and rich decor, which reflected the claims of the Vladimir princes to the all-Russian superiority. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave rise to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city of his own name Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereyaslavl - Zalesky. The earliest of the local churches that have come down to us were erected under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Dolgoruky became the first independent prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land. The prince chose the village of Kideksha as his residence, 4 km from Suzdal. Here in 1152, in the center of the princely palace, probably by Galician craftsmen, the Church of Boris and Gleb was erected. The Church of Boris and Gleb is the only surviving building from the princely palace. This is a single-dome, four-pillar, three-apse church. It is built from massive blocks of local white limestone. The decor of the church is extremely modest for a princely building. At the same time, in 1152, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior was laid in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. This temple is also one-domed, four-pillared, three-apsed. The temple is also almost devoid of decor, but it is distinguished by the clarity of its architectural design, the harsh simplicity of its appearance. Andrei Bogolyubsky was the first to raise the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. To decorate his new capital - Vladimir, he launched a large-scale construction. In 1164 in Vladimir, in imitation of Kyiv, in the western part of the city facing Moscow, the Golden Gates were built. They simultaneously served the city as a defense hub and a solemn entrance.
On an artificially constructed hill not far from Vladimir, Bogolyubsky erected his country residence. So, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace arose (1158-1165), or rather, a real castle - a fortress that included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince's tower, etc. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin - the patroness of the Vladimir land and the Vladimir prince. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. Probably, it was in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloody, crawled down the stairs, as the annals unforgettably vividly tell about this. Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), designed to become the main cathedral of the new center of Rus' - Vladimir. He even asked the Patriarch of Constantinople to establish a metropolia in Vladimir separate from Kyiv and to subordinate the bishops of northern Rus' to the Metropolitan of Vladimir, but he did not receive permission for this.
The Assumption Cathedral is a majestic six-pillar church built of large white limestone slabs tightly fitted to each other. An arcade belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the shoulder blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; perspective portals, slit-like windows. Spindles are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. No less solemn was the interior of the cathedral. The decoration of the temple sparkled with gold, silver, precious stones. After the fire in the Assumption Cathedral in 1185, the architects of Prince Vsevolod erected new walls around the one-domed six-pillar temple, crowned them with four domes and divided the facades into five parts - spindly. The temple appeared even more majestic, it acquired a truly classical for Russian architecture mighty stature.
The brilliant development of Russian architecture was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. But the experience of creating majestic buildings, the traditions and techniques of architectural schools, especially the Vladimir one, were of decisive importance for the culture of the new emerging center of Rus' - Moscow.
fresco painting
In the XII - XIII centuries. V monumental painting- mosaics and frescoes - various Russian lands also developed local schools that had their own characteristics. The common thing for all schools was that the Russian masters not only mastered the art of composition, but also learned to convey a complex range of feelings.
By the end of the XIII century. its own school of frescoes developed in Novgorod. This school transformed all its own and borrowed from outside into a single style, which, according to art critics, is recognized as Novgorod. The Novgorod style is most fully expressed in the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and St. George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod style is characterized by a desire for simplification. artistic techniques, which was probably dictated by the desire to create art that is understandable to a person inexperienced in theological matters.
iconography
At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII centuries. in Rus', the Russian icon-painting school was formed. About two dozen icons have come down to our days from pre-Mongolian times.
The most famous of the icons of that era is Our Lady of Vladimir. This icon is not only a sample of the Byzantine icon that has come down to us. easel painting , but also one of the highest achievements all world art. The name of the ingenious author of this icon is unknown, but his belonging to the Constantinopolitan school is undeniable. Already in 1155, this icon was on Russian soil, where it was brought from Constantinople. The fate of this icon in our country is unprecedented. According to legend, Mary was painted from life by the evangelist Luke ("the patron saint of painters"), while on a board from the table on which Christ ate with his Mother. It was kept in one of the temples of Vyshgorod, a suburb of Kyiv. In 1155 Andrey Bogolyubsky, planted by his father Yuri Dolgoruky in Vyshgorod, took and left Vyshgorod for his native Rostov-Suzdal land. Andrei took with him a local shrine - the icon of the Virgin. In Vladimir, Andrei began to glorify the icon: he decorated it with pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones; built a temple for her - the Assumption Cathedral, installed new holiday in Rus' - Intercession (October 14).
Andrei tried in every possible way to emphasize that he and his land are under the auspices of this icon. In Vladimir, glorification began, the high fate of this image of the Virgin. For centuries it was called "Vladimirskaya". The most significant events in the life of our country were connected with her, more than once she saved Rus' from enemy invasions. With the rise of Moscow as a new center of Russian statehood, it was transferred to Moscow and became a state shrine. In Christian iconography, one of the most beautiful scenes is the image of the young Mother Mary and her son, the God-man, born to suffer for the sins of people.
In Latin Western world these motifs found their most vivid embodiment in " Sistine Madonna"Raphael. Raphael's Madonna is a majestic maiden carrying a baby through the clouds with a non-childish gaze. In the Greek-Slavic world, these motifs are expressed in the Vladimir Mother of God. In the Vladimir icon, in the words of the artist I.E. Grabar, "the most ancient song of motherhood", the icon painter is brilliant conveyed inexpressible tenderness and inexpressible sadness in the eyes of the Mother, who knows about the unparalleled fate of her son - martyrdom, glory and power over millions. Nowhere in painting is maternal grief and sorrow so expressed, but at the same time, the eternal joy of being. Joy coexists with sorrow, revealed in the sweetest tenderness.This iconographic type, born in Byzantium, was called "Eleusa" ("Merciful"), in Russian icon painting it was especially widespread under the beautiful sounding name- "Affection".
Among the icons of the 12th and 13th centuries, associated with Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, there are masterpieces. Shoulder "Deisus" (in Greek "prayer" or "petition"), where on both sides of the young Christ, mournful angels replace the traditional figures of the two main saints (Mary and John), interceding before Christ for the human race. Ideological meaning"Deesis" symbolizes the idea of intercession. In the eyes of the people, the "Deesis" embodied last hope desperate.
Decorative applied art
During the period of feudal fragmentation, decorative and applied art continued to develop. Big cities famous for their craftsmen. The craftsmen of Galich, Novgorod, Vladimir improved their skills in engraving, wood carving, gold embroidery on fabric, etc. Special Development in Rus' received the production of weapons and military armor. Gunsmiths made swords, battle axes, spears, sabers, knives, shields, chain mail.
Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th - 13th centuries, using new technology, began to produce blades of sabers of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility. Far beyond the borders of Novgorod, the products of Novgorod goldsmiths were famous. Two signed crater masters of Bratila and Costa and two Zion middle of the 12th century Novgorodians have achieved great skill in the manufacture of bone, glass, wood, and metal products. Vladimir becomes a major craft and trade center. It is inhabited by thousands of skilled architects, builders, masons, carvers, jewelers, and painters. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths played a significant role among them. The high level of the Vladimir-Suzdal gunsmiths and goldsmiths is evidenced by the so-called helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and the father of Alexander Nevsky. It was found in 1808 near Yuryev-Polsky on the site of the Lipitsky battle, which took place in 1216 between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest, who decided the fate of his father's inheritance. The shape of the helmet is traditional, but technically it was very different from the helmets of the 9th - 10th centuries.
The entire hull is forged from one piece rather than riveted from individual plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. The helmet is decorated with chased silver linings. On the overlays of the upper part there are images of the Archangel Michael, next to them are Saints Theodore and George, and at the back - Saint Basil. Along the edges of the plate there is an inscription: "Great Archangel Michael, help your servant Fedor." Fedor - the name of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in baptism. The helmet is one of the the most valuable exhibits collections of defensive weapons of the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. Thus, in general, pre-Horde period a powerful ancient Russian culture was created. Further, hard times will come in Rus', the invasion of the Mongols - Tatars will cause significant damage to the culture of Rus', but Russian culture will not die. She was able to express such a lofty spiritual ideal, she possessed such powerful creative possibilities, such a large supply of original artistic ideas, that she was far from exhausted. Old Russian culture of the XI - XII centuries. laid the foundations for the culture of the new Russian statehood - the Muscovite kingdom.
The culture of Rus' in the period of fragmentation
For the Russian spiritual culture of the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. characterized by the formation of "polycentrism" - the appearance in different regions Rus''s original cultural centers.
Chronicle writing is being further developed. If in the XI - the beginning of the XII century. only Kiev and Novgorod were the centers of chronicle work, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing is carried out in most centers of the formed feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the "regional" nature of the chronicle, the chroniclers of the XII - the first half of the XIII century. did not become isolated in their narrowly regional events, to one extent or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the annalistic texts that have come down to us, the annals of the centers of Southern Rus' are best reflected in the Ipatiev Chronicle (end of the 13th century), the North-Eastern - the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).
At the end of the XII century. one of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" was created. It is dedicated to the aforementioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this campaign that served as the reason for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and made a strong impression on his contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy annalistic stories are devoted to them).
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the autumn of 1188 (at the same time, it is possible that its main text was written as early as 1185, shortly after Igor's escape from captivity, and in 1188 . additions were made to it in connection with the return of brother and son Igor from captivity). Unknown author his name, the solution of whose name never ceases to interest researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all available versions of serious criticism do not stand up), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum of the ancient Russian nobility - the boyars.
The main idea of the Lay is the need for unity in the actions of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely strife and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of united state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his appeal is directed not to state unification, but to inner world, to consent in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, Lslovo¦ is at the same time a vivid monument of historical thought. The “current” time is compared in it with past events, moreover, of national history (which was rare - usually historical examples in the works of ancient Russian literature were drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of the current troubles of Rus': for this purpose, the author refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his address to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the XII century. (exact dating is a subject of dispute) another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature, The Word of Daniil the Sharpener, appeared in North-Eastern Rus'. It is written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, who comes from the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince's mercy again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The "Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the XIII century. the second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener". It is addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time the prince of Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative new category within the ranks of the ruling class. characteristic feature"Supplication" is a negative attitude towards high nobility- boyars.
Another outstanding work ancient Russian literature - "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu hordes into it and about death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City brother Yaroslav - Yuri.
This work (left unfinished) contains an unparalleled medieval literature hymn-praise native land, a recollection of its former power (under princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion of the “illness” - strife that undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the author of The Tale of Perdition refers to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the causes of its current troubles.
In the genre of epic mid-twelfth- the beginning of the XIII century. - the time of the appearance of such epic stories as "Saur Levanidovich", "Sukhman", Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temple, but stone structures also appear). princely palaces) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. there is a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, St. George's Cathedral of the St. George's Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (end of the 12th century) near Novgorod, in North-Eastern Russia - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.bestreferat.ru were used.
