Enlightenment in the period of feudal fragmentation. The culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation in the history of Russia, the period from the end of xii to the middle of xy time church
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The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted from the first half of the 12th century to the end of the 15th century. One of the chroniclers wrote in his chronicle under the year 1132: “And the whole Russian land became angry ...”, when, after the death of the Grand Duke of Kiev Mstislav, the son of Monomakh, all the principalities of Rus' left Kiev and began to live an independent life. Since that time, the once united state began to be divided into independent princely possessions. In the middle of the XII century, there were 15 principalities in Rus', and in the XIV century - about 250.
Within the period under review, there was a clear boundary - Tatar invasion 1237 - 1241, after which the natural course of the Russian historical process was disrupted. This article highlights only the first phase of feudal fragmentation, which is often called generically the "pre-Mongolian period" of the history of Rus'.
Speaking of feudal fragmentation, it must be borne in mind that the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus did not entail cultural fragmentation. General religious consciousness, traditions, the unity of the church organization slowed down the process of isolation and created the prerequisites for a possible future reunification of the Russian principalities.
Lots of ambiguity in the definition reasons that gave rise to feudal fragmentation. Most scientists put economic reasons in the first place: the dominance of a natural closed economy, which means that producers have no interest in the development of commodity relations, the development of a feudal estate, which plays an organizing role in the development of agricultural production.
A number of authors associate this process with political, cultural and socio-psychological factors, such as the unregulated order of the princely succession to the throne (“stair climbing”), strife within the ruling dynasty, separatism and ambitions of the local landed nobility.
Thus, in Kievan Rus at the beginning of the 12th century, there were both unifying (external danger, culture, inheritance order, etc.) and separating principles (economic development of territories, political and socio-psychological factors).
An original explanation of the fragmentation of the Kievan state was made by L.N. Gumilev. According to his concept, it was the result of a decline in passionary energy in the system of the ancient Russian ethnos.
Gradually, a new political map was formed in Rus' with many political centers. Local princes had all the rights of sovereign sovereigns. The small size of the principalities allowed them to personally delve into all matters of administration, to administer court in their own court or to go round the possessions.
Under the prince, as a rule, there was a boyar "duma", which consisted of well-born boyars and clergy. This advisory body did not have a legal status, its composition, convocation, and issues for discussion were completely dependent on the prince. The recommendations of the Duma were not obligatory, but most often the princes listened to them.
Needing an obedient and reliable support in the fight against the arbitrariness of the boyars, the princes began to rely on people who in the 16th century began to be called the nobility or "children of the boyars." These were combatants, servants, ryadovichi, tiuns, who performed economic and administrative-judicial functions in the principality and received princely "favor" for their service - princely lands for temporary use. Perhaps some of them, for special merits, received land in hereditary, patrimonial possession, moving into the category of boyars.
Thus, in the 12th century, servicemen became the rivals of the boyars and the support of the princes.
Cities were an important element of medieval society. The medieval city was a complex and diverse social organism that cannot be characterized by any one feature. The city was a fortress, a refuge in times of danger for the surrounding smerds, it was, as it were, according to B.A. Rybakov, a collective castle of large land magnates of the districts, headed by the prince himself. It was the administrative center of the principality, the place of court and payment, the place of issuing various decrees. It was the center of a variety of crafts: everything that was needed for the economy or war was produced here. It was also the main (and sometimes the only) place of trade in the area and the focus of reserves and wealth.
In each principality, in accordance with the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces took shape, and the specifics of political and economic development were determined.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. three main political centers were defined in Rus', each of which had an impact on the development of neighboring lands and principalities: for northeastern and western, and also to some extent for northwestern Rus' - Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; for southern and southwestern Rus' - the Galicia-Volyn principality; for northwestern Rus' - Novgorod feudal republic .
Culture of Kievan Rus and Russian lands in the period of feudal fragmentation.
The concept of culture. Characteristic features of the culture of Kievan Rus. Development of literature, architecture, painting. The culture of the Russian lands of the period of feudal fragmentation and its features.
The answer to any question on culture is recommended to start with the definition of "culture"(a set of material and spiritual values of people existing at a certain stage of historical development and transmitted from generation to generation). Then one should identify a characteristic feature of the development of the culture of this period and describe the achievements in different areas culture: literature, architecture, art, etc.
1. Culture of Kievan Rus. A characteristic feature is the huge influence of the adoption of Christianity on the formation and development of culture. It was especially evident:
1. In literature: writing (Cyrillic) finally arose, the first handwritten books of spiritual and less often secular content appeared (Svyatoslav's Izbornik, Illarion's Word on Law and Grace, Vladimir Monomakh's Teachings), annals appeared (Nestor's PVL). The main material is parchment (specially dressed calf skin) and birch bark (birch bark letters in Novgorod).
2. In architecture- the first stone structures appeared: the Church of the Virgin (Desyatinnaya) in Kiev (989-996), the cathedrals of St. Sophia in Kiev (1037-1043) and Novgorod (1045-1050). Try to answer the question, what did the cult of Hagia Sophia mean and why were the main temples of the state named that way? (to show its equality with Byzantium, where the main cathedral was named after St. Sophia). It should be noted that initially Byzantine cross-domed churches were used as a model; gradually from the end of the XII century. elements of the national style also appeared - first of all, the completion of the heads of temples either in the form of an onion or in the form of a warrior's helmet (in Byzantium - a hemisphere).
3. In painting- the appearance of iconography (mostly Byzantine icons were copied). It should also be noted the use of fresco painting (applying paint on wet plaster) and mosaics when decorating temples.
It should also be noted achievements in the development crafts, primarily weapons and jewelry (techniques grain and filigree).
2. Culture of Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation. A characteristic feature is the appearance of numerous new cultural centers in addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, competing with each other. In particular, this manifested itself:
1. In literature– several alternative centers of chronicle writing emerged; the brightest of them are Novgorod school(characteristic feature: praising "Mr. Veliky Novgorod"), Vladimir school(characteristic feature: praising princely power), Galician-Volyn school(a characteristic feature: the presence of numerous lyrical digressions, the brightness of style; the main character is Daniil Galitsky).
2. In architecture- There are two styles:
– Novgorodian: the main feature is the severity of the style, the minimization of decorations, the main material is brick (example: the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198);
– Vladimirsky: the main feature is increased decorativeness, monumentality, the use of stone carving, the main material is white limestone (examples: the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1158-1160), the Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir (1154 -1197 years)).
Conclusion: By the time of the Mongol invasion, Russian culture was at a fairly high level of development and, at least, was not inferior to the culture of Western countries.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, three all-Russian cultural centers were formed around Galich, Novgorod and Vladimir. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each of them developed its own aesthetic environment, developed its own artistic ideals, their understanding and expression of beauty. And this did not testify to the collapse of the ancient Russian nationality and its culture. Despite the existence of local schools, styles, and traditions, the Old Russian culture continued to be fundamentally united. The time of feudal fragmentation was not a time of decline, but a flourishing of ancient Russian culture.
chronicle writing
From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicle writing. Chronicles began to be kept in all principalities, and chronicle writing acquires a regional character. Most significant centers chronicles become, in addition to Kiev and Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities. Local chroniclers focused on local events, but considered the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of the Russian state and kept The Tale of Bygone Years as part of the local chronicles. Ancestral princely annals appear - biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. Individual features appeared in the local annals. So, for the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, which tells about the events in the life of the Galicia-Volyn principality from the beginning of the XIII century. until 1292, secular and poetic manner of presentation are characteristic. The chronicle pays the main attention to the struggle of princely power with the recalcitrant boyars. The Novgorod chronicle is especially distinguished by its local character. Novgorod chroniclers describe in detail the events of inner-Novgorod life from the 11th to the 15th centuries. from the position of the boyars, eminent merchants and other representatives of the ruling class. The Novgorod chronicle reflects the life of Novgorod with its turbulent political events and a fierce struggle both between the various clans of the richest landowners and owners, and between the various social groups of the Novgorod land. At the same time, the style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by its simplicity and efficiency, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir princes claimed all-Russian primacy, so the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers sought to give their annals an all-Russian character, to present themselves and their land as the successors of Kievan Rus, and for this they widely used religious argumentation, which was not the case in other chronicle centers.
Literature
High level of development of culture and literature of the X-XI centuries. paved the way for the creation in the 80s of the XII century. a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The "Word" is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. That campaign made a strong impression on contemporaries, as it was accompanied by a number of unique circumstances: a solar eclipse, the death of most of the Russian troops, the capture and escape of Igor. The author not only tells about the events of the campaign, but also reflects on what happened, expresses his attitude to what happened, evaluates the campaign and the defeat of Igor in comparison with the events of the history of his country, with his thoughts about the fate of the Russian land. The author of the "Lay" is unknown; the solution to his name has been worrying researchers for several centuries. Most likely, he was a resident of Southern Rus' and belonged to the highest stratum of the nobility - the boyars. But the unknown author was able to overcome the narrowness of the interests of his principality and estate and rise to the height of understanding of all-Russian interests. The author calls on the Russian princes to unite in the face of external danger and "stand up for the Russian land", to protect the southern borders of Rus'. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The "Word" told about the events of its time, at the same time, it is also a monument of historical thought. What is happening in it has something in common with past events from Russian history, which was rare at that moment. Usually the authors drew historical examples from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history. A feature of the historicism of this work is that the author tries to find the sources of current troubles in the past and refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when princely strife began in Rus', which led to the weakening of the country in the face of the Polovtsian danger. The "Word" is written in an extraordinary poetic language. Unusually expressive is the famous cry of Yaroslavna - Princess Efrosinya, Igor's wife. Yaroslavna begs the wind, the river, the sun not to harm the wounded prince and return him to his native land. The "Word" embodied the characteristic for Russian literature of the XII - XIII centuries. features - connection with oral folk art, with historical reality, patriotism, citizenship.
Architecture
The period of feudal fragmentation is the time of extensive stone construction in all principalities. Beautiful cities were created in the capital cities architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, their own distinctive features. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the structures of the previous period by the smaller scale of buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and ease of decoration. A typical building was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence in architecture is weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joins the pan-European Romanesque style. This initiation did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. architectural buildings Galicia-Volyn lands are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the XIV century. Galicia-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. Catholic Church for many centuries it destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the temples of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv composition with Romanesque building techniques and elements of Romanesque decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kiev plinths, from which they erected temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and without pillars, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas- evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by the Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century) with its promising portal and carved capitals.
The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes turned into hired chiefs of a squad guarding the city with its possessions. The princes lose the citadel and St. Sophia Cathedral, which passes into the possession of the archbishop. The prince was evicted outside the city - on Gorodische, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settle down and build monasteries - fortresses with temples. Of the temples built by order of the princes, the most significant are the Annunciation, Nikolo - Dvorishchensky and St. George's Cathedrals of the St. George's Monastery. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is uncharacteristic for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the technique of mixed masonry, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is actually devoid of decor, since Novgorod limestone is loose, oversaturated with shells and is difficult to process. History has not conveyed to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod annals - "Master Peter". One of the brightest architectural schools period of feudal fragmentation became Vladimir-Suzdal. It began with the erection of the first stone temple in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh in the 11th century; its heyday falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). Vladimir princes pursued a policy that contributed to the birth of the Great Russian people in the North-East of Rus', laying the foundations of a new Russian statehood. The Vladimir-Suzdal architectural school was distinguished by solemnity, elegance, and rich decor, which reflected the claims of the Vladimir princes to the all-Russian superiority. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave rise to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city of his own name Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereyaslavl - Zalesky. The earliest of the local churches that have come down to us were erected under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Dolgoruky became the first independent prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land. The prince chose the village of Kideksha as his residence, 4 km from Suzdal. Here in 1152, in the center of the princely palace, probably by Galician craftsmen, the Church of Boris and Gleb was erected. The Church of Boris and Gleb is the only surviving building from the princely palace. This is a single-dome, four-pillar, three-apse church. It is built from massive blocks of local white limestone. The decor of the church is extremely modest for a princely building. At the same time, in 1152, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior was laid in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. This temple is also one-domed, four-pillared, three-apsed. The temple is also almost devoid of decor, but it is distinguished by the clarity of its architectural design, the harsh simplicity of its appearance. Andrei Bogolyubsky was the first to raise the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. To decorate his new capital - Vladimir, he launched a large-scale construction. In 1164 in Vladimir, in imitation of Kyiv, in the western part of the city facing Moscow, the Golden Gates were built. They simultaneously served the city as a defense hub and a solemn entrance.
On an artificially constructed hill not far from Vladimir, Bogolyubsky erected his country residence. So, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace arose (1158-1165), or rather, a real castle - a fortress that included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince's tower, etc. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin - the patroness of the Vladimir land and the Vladimir prince. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. Probably, it was in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloody, crawled down the stairs, as the annals unforgettably vividly tell about this. Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), designed to become the main cathedral of the new center of Rus' - Vladimir. He even asked the Patriarch of Constantinople to establish a metropolia in Vladimir separate from Kyiv and to subordinate the bishops of northern Rus' to the Metropolitan of Vladimir, but he did not receive permission for this.
The Assumption Cathedral is a majestic six-pillar church built of large white limestone slabs tightly fitted to each other. An arcade belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the shoulder blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; perspective portals, slit-like windows. Spindles are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. No less solemn was the interior of the cathedral. The decoration of the temple sparkled with gold, silver, precious stones. After the fire in the Assumption Cathedral in 1185, the architects of Prince Vsevolod erected new walls around the one-domed six-pillar temple, crowned them with four domes and divided the facades into five parts - spindly. The temple appeared even more majestic, it acquired a truly classical for Russian architecture mighty stature.
The brilliant development of Russian architecture was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. But the experience of creating majestic buildings, the traditions and techniques of architectural schools, especially the Vladimir one, were of decisive importance for the culture of the new emerging center of Rus' - Moscow.
fresco painting
In the XII - XIII centuries. in monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes - of various Russian lands, local schools also developed, which had their own characteristics. The common thing for all schools was that the Russian masters not only mastered the art of composition, but also learned to convey a complex range of feelings.
By the end of the XIII century. its own school of frescoes developed in Novgorod. This school transformed all its own and borrowed from outside into a single style, which, according to art critics, is recognized as Novgorod. The Novgorod style is most fully expressed in the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and St. George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod style is characterized by a desire for simplification. artistic techniques, which was probably dictated by the desire to create art that is understandable to a person inexperienced in theological matters.
iconography
At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII centuries. in Rus', the Russian icon-painting school was formed. About two dozen icons have come down to our days from pre-Mongolian times.
The most famous of the icons of that era is Our Lady of Vladimir. This icon is not only a sample of the Byzantine icon that has come down to us. easel painting, but also one of the highest achievements all world art. The name of the ingenious author of this icon is unknown, but his belonging to the Constantinopolitan school is undeniable. Already in 1155, this icon was on Russian soil, where it was brought from Constantinople. The fate of this icon in our country is unprecedented. According to legend, Mary was painted from life by the evangelist Luke ("the patron saint of painters"), while on a board from the table on which Christ ate with his Mother. It was kept in one of the temples of Vyshgorod, a suburb of Kyiv. In 1155 Andrey Bogolyubsky, planted by his father Yuri Dolgoruky in Vyshgorod, took and left Vyshgorod for his native Rostov-Suzdal land. Andrei took with him a local shrine - the icon of the Virgin. In Vladimir, Andrei began to glorify the icon: he decorated it with pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones; built a temple for her - the Assumption Cathedral, installed new holiday in Rus' - Intercession (October 14).
Andrei tried in every possible way to emphasize that he and his land are under the auspices of this icon. In Vladimir, glorification began, the high fate of this image of the Virgin. For centuries it was called "Vladimirskaya". The most significant events in the life of our country were connected with her, more than once she saved Rus' from enemy invasions. With the rise of Moscow as a new center of Russian statehood, it was transferred to Moscow and became a state shrine. In Christian iconography, one of the most beautiful scenes is the image of the young Mother Mary and her son, the God-man, born to suffer for the sins of people.
In the Latin Western world, these motifs found their most striking expression in Raphael's Sistine Madonna. The Madonna of Raphael is a majestic maiden carrying a baby through the clouds with a childish gaze. In the Greek-Slavic world, these motifs are expressed in the Vladimir Mother of God. In the Vladimir icon, according to the artist I.E. Grabar, "the most ancient song of motherhood", the icon painter brilliantly conveyed inexpressible tenderness and inexpressible sadness in the eyes of the Mother, who knows about the unparalleled fate of her son - martyrdom, glory and power over millions. Nowhere in painting is maternal grief and sorrow so expressed, but at the same time, the eternal joy of being. Joy coexists with sorrow, revealing itself in the sweetest tenderness. This iconographic type, born in Byzantium, was called "Eleusa" ("Merciful"), in Russian icon painting it was especially widespread under the beautiful sounding name- "Affection".
Among the icons of the 12th and 13th centuries, associated with Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, there are masterpieces. Shoulder "Deisus" (in Greek "prayer" or "petition"), where on both sides of the young Christ, mournful angels replace the traditional figures of the two main saints (Mary and John), interceding before Christ for the human race. The ideological meaning of the "Deesis" symbolizes the idea of intercession. In the eyes of the people, the "Deesis" embodied last hope desperate.
Arts and Crafts
During the period of feudal fragmentation, decorative and applied art continued to develop. Large cities were famous for their craftsmen. The craftsmen of Galich, Novgorod, Vladimir improved their skills in engraving, wood carving, gold embroidery on fabric, etc. The production of weapons and military armor received special development in Rus'. Gunsmiths made swords, battle axes, spears, sabers, knives, shields, chain mail.
Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th - 13th centuries, using new technology, began to produce blades of sabers of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility. Far beyond the borders of Novgorod, the products of Novgorod goldsmiths were famous. Two signed crater masters of Bratila and Costa and two Zion middle of the 12th century Novgorodians have achieved great skill in the manufacture of bone, glass, wood, and metal products. Vladimir becomes a major craft and trade center. It is inhabited by thousands of skilled architects, builders, masons, carvers, jewelers, and painters. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths played a significant role among them. The high level of the Vladimir-Suzdal gunsmiths and goldsmiths is evidenced by the so-called helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and the father of Alexander Nevsky. It was found in 1808 near Yuryev-Polsky on the site of the Lipitsky battle, which took place in 1216 between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest, who decided the fate of his father's inheritance. The shape of the helmet is traditional, but technically it was very different from the helmets of the 9th - 10th centuries.
The entire hull is forged from one piece rather than riveted from individual plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. The helmet is decorated with chased silver linings. On the overlays of the upper part there are images of the Archangel Michael, next to them are Saints Theodore and George, and at the back - Saint Basil. Along the edges of the plate there is an inscription: "Great Archangel Michael, help your servant Fedor." Fedor - the name of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in baptism. The helmet is one of the the most valuable exhibits collections of defensive weapons of the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. Thus, in general, a powerful ancient Russian culture was created in the pre-Horde period. Further, hard times will come in Rus', the invasion of the Mongols - Tatars will cause significant damage to the culture of Rus', but Russian culture will not die. She was able to express such a lofty spiritual ideal, she possessed such powerful creative possibilities, such a large supply of original artistic ideas, that she was far from exhausted. Old Russian culture XI - XII centuries. laid the foundations for the culture of the new Russian statehood - the Muscovite kingdom.
In the process of feudalization, the Old Russian state was fragmented into a number of separate, to a certain extent independent, principalities and lands. Feudal fragmentation, which was a natural stage in the historical development of Rus', was a consequence of the economic isolation of individual principalities. The growth of large property and the spread of food rent created during this period more favorable conditions for the further development of the economy. At the same time, the consequence of fragmentation was the strengthening of princely strife. In the conditions of constant internecine wars, the foreign policy position of Rus' worsened, and in the end, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it lost its independence.
Agriculture and the condition of the peasants
During the period of feudal fragmentation, there were significant shifts in the productive forces of the country, and agricultural technology improved. So, for example, in the territory located along the Dniester, as evidenced by excavation materials, the population used the colum (a plow knife installed in front of the plowshare) when plowing virgin lands with a plow, a plowshare for cultivating old arable land and small plowshares for pre-sowing tillage. A water mill was used to grind grain. In the central regions of Rus', along with undercutting and fallow, a three-field system of agriculture spread, the Russian people mastered vast expanses of new lands, especially in the northeast of the country (in the Volga region, in the basin of the Northern Dvina, etc.). New field, garden and horticultural crops appeared. The number of livestock grew.
Changes took place in the position of the peasants during the period of feudal fragmentation. The number of quitrent peasants dependent on the feudal lords increased. In the Novgorod and Suzdal lands, for example, ladles and pawns appeared. Ladles were called smerds, who were obliged to give the feudal lord a share of the harvest as quitrent; mortgages - peasants who left the former landowner and became dependent (into a "mortgage") from another. In Smolensk land, forgivers were known - peasants who were dependent on church feudal lords, who took quitrent from them (honey and "kuns" - money) and had the right to judge them.
The peasant, who was obliged to pay the owner a feudal rent in products, received greater economic independence and had greater opportunities for manifesting his own labor initiative than the corvée. Therefore, with the development (along with corvée) of rent in products, the productivity of the peasant's labor increased. He was able to produce a certain surplus of products that he could turn into a commodity on the market. The beginnings of a property stratification of the peasantry appeared.
Expansion of connections peasant economy with the market contributed to the growth of cities, the development of crafts and trade in them, the development of commodity production. In turn, the feudal lords, selling products received at the expense of dues in kind, acquired expensive weapons, fabrics, overseas wines and other luxury items in the cities. The desire to increase their wealth pushed the feudal lords to increase the dues, to intensify the exploitation of the peasantry.
The peasants were an estate of an inferior category of the population. In the annals, when describing the "exploits" of the feudal lords, captive peasants and serfs were mentioned along with cattle. The Church consecrated this order, regarding the murder by the master of a “complete servant” (that is, a serf) not as “murder”, but only as a “sin before God”. If the serf fled, a chase would follow him, and the one who gave him bread and showed him the way had to pay a fine. But the one who detained the serf received a reward for the "transfer". True, the property rights of serfs have expanded somewhat. The agreement of 1229 between Smolensk and German cities speaks of the right of serfs to transfer their property by inheritance.
The rise of feudal landownership
The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' is characterized by the rapid growth of large-scale landownership and the struggle of the feudal lords for land and for the peasants. Princely possessions included both cities and villages. For example, the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich owned the cities of Kholm, Danilov, Ugrovesk, Lvov, Vsevolozh, and others. Boyar and church land ownership also grew. The Novgorod, Galician, and Vladimir-Suzdal boyars were especially wealthy.
IN different parts countries appeared new monasteries. Bishop Simon of Vladimir (XIII century) boasted of the riches of his bishopric - lands and income from the population ("tithe"). Throughout Rus', the patrimonial economy, which retained a natural character, expanded significantly. The boyar courts grew. The former boyar servants (part of which carried the corvée) turned into courtyard people.
The growth of feudal property was accompanied by the strengthening of the political power of the landowners, who had the right to judge their peasants and were responsible to the state for their performance of state duties, primarily taxes. Gradually, a large landowner became himself a "sovereign" in his possessions, sometimes dangerous for princely power.
Struggle within the ruling class
Among the landowners were feudal lords of various ranks, who had different political rights. Grand dukes - in Galich, in Vladimir, and even in the relatively small Ryazan - were considered the heads of their principalities, but in fact they had to share power with other feudal lords. The grand ducal power, which sought to implement a unifying policy, faced both boyar and church nobility. In this struggle, the local grand dukes found support from small and medium service feudal lords - nobles and boyar children. Free servants, boyar children, nobles - these are usually the younger members of the princely and boyar squads, who constituted the largest group of the ruling class. They owned the land, some conditionally, while they served, and were the support of the Grand Duke, supplying him with an army consisting of dependent smerds - footmen (infantrymen). The princely power expanded the ranks of the nobles, attracting them to itself by distributing land. The nobles were part of the spoils of war.
The severity of the struggle within the class of feudal lords can be judged from the works of social and political thought. The defender of strong princely power, spokesman for the views of the then nobility, Daniil Zatochnik sharply denounced the secular and spiritual nobility: “A fat horse snores against his master like an enemy; so does a strong, wealthy boyar plotting evil against his prince.” “It would be better for me,” Daniel says to the prince, “to serve in bast shoes in your house than in morocco boots in the boyar court.” Daniil Zatochnik expressed the idea of the need for the participation of the nobles in management: they, and not from the "rulers without a mind," should consist of "princely duma members."
Although the tendency towards the centralization of the country was developed at that time in Rus', however, it could not end with a lasting victory for the grand ducal power. More than once, the "young" boyars and the "nobility", growing rich, took the place of the "old" and, colliding with individual princes in feudal wars, overturned their attempts to unite significant territories. The economic conditions are not yet ripe for the victory of the trend towards unity. The struggle for land among the ruling class led to constant clashes. Often the princes devastated the land of their opponents so much that they did not leave “neither servants nor cattle” in them. The princely detachments stopped in the villages and took away all household supplies.
City
The city became a very important factor in the economic and political history of the period of developed feudalism in Rus'. It was a craft, trade and administrative center for the surrounding lands, as well as a gathering point for their military forces. Describing the important role of large cities, the chronicler reports that residents of the suburbs came here to veche meetings, for whom the decisions of the “oldest cities” were binding.
The number of cities (large and small) has grown since the 11th century. more than three times, and by the XIII century, only according to incomplete data from the annals, it reached almost three hundred. The flourishing of urban crafts continued until the Mongol invasion. Archaeological material allows us to speak about the existence of up to 60 different craft specialties at that time. Even in small urban centers there were complex blast furnaces for iron smelting, there were several systems of pottery forges, etc. Chroniclers unanimously describe cities as large craft and trade centers, where significant stone construction is carried out. Wonderful princely palace in Bogolyubovo, magnificent temples decorated with stone carvings, in Vladimir, Novgorod, Galich, Chernigov and other cities, water pipes and pavements, partly preserved to this day and discovered by Soviet archaeologists, characterize the achievements of ancient Russian masters.
Russian artisans performed a wide variety of work. So, for example, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, some local artisans poured tin, others covered the roofs, others whitewashed the walls. In Galicia-Volyn Rus, in the city of Kholm, bells were cast and a platform for the local church was cast from copper and tin. It is not for nothing that the images characterizing handicraft work were widely used in the literature of that time: “Just as tin, often melted down, dies, so a person languishes from many misfortunes”; “You boil iron, but you can’t teach an evil wife,” wrote Daniil Zatochnik.
Along with the craft, trade also developed. The sales area for the products of rural artisans was still insignificant, while the sales area for urban craftsmen who worked to order for boyars and warriors reached 50-100 km. Many urban craftsmen (Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk) worked for the market. Some, though not numerous, products diverged for hundreds of kilometers, and individual works artisans went abroad (to Bulgaria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Sweden).
Trade developed within the principalities. Merchants traveled across the Russian lands, merchant caravans, numbering several hundred people, passed. Galician merchants brought salt to Kyiv, Suzdal merchants delivered bread to Novgorod, etc.
The princes received a variety of income from trade: tribute from merchants (guests), taverns - duties from taverns; myta - duties for the right to transport goods; transportation - for transportation across the river, etc. The princes more and more often included in contracts with each other an article stating that merchants have the right to free passage through customs gates. But under the dominance of feudal fragmentation and frequent wars, these trade ties were often interrupted. The economy as a whole continued to remain natural.
Foreign trade reached a significant scale at this time. So, "guests" from Byzantium and other countries came to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. Large cities - Novgorod, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk concluded trade agreements with German cities (treaties of 1189, 1229, etc.). Russian merchant associations won more and more stable positions in neighboring lands. There were "Russian streets" in Constantinople, Riga, Bolgar.
The political significance of the urban trade and handicraft population has greatly increased. The artisans of the largest cities united in "streets", "rows" and "hundreds", had their own churches, built in honor of one or another "saint" - the patron of the craft, and their own treasury. Craft associations met to discuss their affairs, elected elders. Merchants also had their own organizations.
The leadership of both merchant associations (such as the Greeks, who traded with Byzantium, the Chudins, who traded with the Baltic states, the Obonezhtsy, who traded with the peoples of the North, etc.), and craft corporations were in the hands of the trade and craft elite, closely associated with the boyar nobility . Large merchants and usurers sharply opposed the urban artisan poor - the smaller people.
The feudal lords during the constant internecine wars plundered and ravaged the cities. Under these conditions, the townspeople sought to free their city from the power of the boyars and petty princes and enter into an agreement with some major prince. Thus, the cities received certain guarantees in the event of feudal wars and at the same time sought recognition from the local grand dukes of their privileges, which primarily protected the rights of wealthy citizens. Cities that contributed at an early stage in the development of feudalism to the establishment political fragmentation in the country, gradually turned into a force that, along with the nobility, more and more energetically contributed to the unification of more significant areas into grand principalities.
Class struggle
No matter how complex and contradictory were the relations between individual groups of the ruling class, this class as a whole opposed the peasantry, which continued the struggle against its oppressors. The forms of the peasant struggle against the feudal lords were diverse: escapes, damage to the master's inventory, extermination of livestock, arson of estates, murder of representatives of the princely administration, and finally, open uprisings.
Repeatedly, uprisings broke out in the cities. The struggle with the landowning nobility, the internal differentiation of the urban population, the growth of debt enslavement of artisans, frequent wars, etc. - all this worsened the already difficult situation of the urban poor and led to uprisings. In these uprisings, the urban poor and the peasantry often acted in concert. Thus, a large uprising of the peasantry and the urban poor broke out in 1136 in Novgorod, when the Novgorodians, together with the Pskovians and Ladoga residents, expelled Prince Vsevolod, who oppressed the smerds. But the fruits of the uprising were appropriated by the boyars, who established a feudal republic in Novgorod, independent of the Kievan grand dukes.
Uprising in Kyiv in 1146. Miniature from the Radzivilov Chronicle. 15th century
In 1207, a new major uprising took place in Novgorod. It was directed primarily against the posadnik Dmitr, who came from a family of wealthy boyars Miroshkinich, who brutally oppressed the urban and rural poor and were engaged in usurious operations. The movement, which began in the city, received a wide response in the countryside. The rebels defeated the yards and villages of Miroshkinichi, seized the IOUs they took from the enslaved "black people", and divided the boyar property among themselves.
The reason for the popular movement of 1174-1175. in the Vladimir-Suzdal land there was a performance of a part of the rich combatants who entered into an alliance with the boyars and betrayed Prince Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. The prince was killed, his castle was plundered. The boyars seized power. At this time, a peasant uprising broke out. The peasants began to destroy representatives of the princely administration, which consisted mainly of nobles. This forced the feudal lords to once again look for the premises of a strong prince. Local cities, led by Vladimir, fearing the autocracy of the boyars, also stood for strong princely power. Ultimately, the popular uprising was crushed.
"Russian Truth" according to the Synoidal List (sheet 1). 1282
In 1146, after the death of the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich, who captured Kyiv, the local trade and craft population rebelled and cracked down on the princely administration. Kievans fought for city liberties, protesting against the transfer of Kyiv by inheritance to the princes of Chernigov.
In Galicia-Volyn Rus, popular movements took place in the 40s of the XII century. The Galician prince Vladimirko Volodarevich, who then fought against the Kyiv prince because of Volhynia, failed and lost some cities. This was reflected in the attitude of other cities towards him, which began to support the Kyiv prince. When the troops of the latter besieged Zvenigorod, the townspeople gathered veche and opposed Vladimirok. But the princely governor suppressed the movement of the townspeople. He captured three men who led the assembly, ordered them to be hacked to death and thrown into the moat. They raised an uprising against Prince Vladimirok and the townspeople of Galich. After the Galicians, forced military force to surrender, they opened the gates to the prince, he killed many people, and executed many with an “evil execution”. A large movement of peasants took place in the Galician land in the 40s of the XIII century.
Political system and state apparatus
With the dismemberment of the Old Russian state in different Russian lands during the XII-XIII centuries. the political importance of the landowning nobility grew and at the same time the grand ducal power struggled with it, leading to unequal results. Such strong princes, such as Vladimir-Suzdal, after the decline of Kyiv, managed to curb the local boyars for a while. In some lands, for example in Novgorod, the landowning nobility defeated the princes. Finally, in the Galicia-Volyn land, a fierce struggle between the strong boyars and the princes went on with varying success. In the rest of the principalities, as far as scarce sources allow us to judge, events developed in one of the indicated directions.
As certain lands were liberated from the domination of the Kievan great princes, the power of the latter increasingly fell into decay. The all-Russian significance of the Kievan princely power decreased, although it did not disappear completely. The Grand Princely Kiev table turned into a bone of contention between the strongest rulers of other principalities. The real state power was in the hands of the feudal lords who headed individual principalities, while the rulers of the largest of them, over time, began to advocate for the unification of the country, declaring themselves the grand dukes of all Rus'.
In all Russian lands at that time there was a further development and strengthening of the administrative apparatus that protected the interests of the feudal lords. Chronicles and legal monuments mention a large number of various military, administrative, financial and other bodies of state and palace power. "Russkaya Pravda", the main guide for the court, was replenished with new legal norms and operated in all the lands of Rus'. Prisons served as places of detention: cuts, cellars, dungeons - deep dark pits, tightly sealed with wood, where, according to sources, prisoners suffocated more than once.
An important place in the state apparatus belonged to the army, in which feudal squads and city regiments received great importance. Among them were the boyars who served the prince with their courts. The main part of the troops was still made up of people's militias on foot, the number of which reached 50-60 thousand people in some principalities. The disunity of the principalities, the strife of the princes scattered and weakened the military forces of the country. At the same time, weapons technology did not stand still. Defensive structures were improved, city fortifications, stone towers, etc. were erected. Siege and throwing weapons (slings, battering rams) began to be used more widely in the defense and siege of cities.
The legal norms regulating the relations of the Russian principalities with foreign states were further developed, as can be seen, for example, from the treaties of Novgorod with the Livonian Order, Sweden and Norway, Galicia-Volyn Rus - with Hungary, Poland, Lithuania and the Teutonic Order.
Vladimir-Suzdal land
As a result of the dismemberment of the Old Russian state on the territory of Rus' in the XI-XII centuries. more than a dozen large principalities were formed - Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk-Minsk, Turov-Pinsk, Smolensk, Galicia-Volynsk, Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Tmutarakan, Murom and Ryazan, as well as feudal republics - Novgorod and Pskov. Of the isolated lands, the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, the main part of the future Great Russia, received the greatest importance. In the Rostov-Suzdal land, a prerequisite for strengthening princely power was the presence of early princely possessions and cities that arose on the basis of local crafts and were associated with trade that was conducted with the East along the Volga and with Western Europe along the system of rivers that connected the Rostov-Suzdal land with the Baltic Sea.
The Rostov-Suzdal land came out from under the rule of Kyiv in the 30s of the XII century, when Monomakh's son Yuri Vladimirovich (1125-1157), nicknamed Dolgoruky, reigned there. He was the first of the Suzdal princes to seek predominance in Rus'. Under him, the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal land extended to Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan, and, in addition, a strong alliance was established with the Galician land. Wanting to unite power in Rus' in his hands, Yuri sought to gain a foothold in Kyiv. Suzdal troops captured this capital city. However, after the death of Yuri, the Kyiv citizens hastened to break their dependence on the Suzdal princes, plundering the courtyards of Yuri, his supporters and merchants throughout the Kyiv land.
Rostov-Suzdal Rus in the middle of the XII century. experienced significant economic growth. An agricultural culture developed here. New cities were built and grew - Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov and others. single state.
Yuri's successor, Prince Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), supported by the nobles and supported by the townspeople of Rostov, Suzdal and residents of other cities, fought resolutely against the recalcitrant boyars. He made Vladimir his capital, where there was a strong trade and craft settlement, appropriated the title of the Grand Duke of all Rus' and sought to extend his power to Kyiv and Novgorod. Continuing to compete with the Volyn princes, Andrei Bogolyubsky organized in 1169 a campaign of the united Suzdal, Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk-Minsk and other regiments against Kiev, captured it and took out many riches to his land, transferring ancient capital in control of one of his proteges. This completed the decline of Kyiv. Novgorod was forced to take on the reign of persons pleasing to Andrei. But the unifying policy of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky was unexpectedly interrupted. He was killed, as already mentioned above, by conspirators from among the boyars and wealthy combatants. His successor Vsevolod Yurievich Big Nest (1177-1212) crushed the resistance of the feudal nobility and executed a number of boyars. The author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, emphasizing the strength and power of his regiments, wrote that they could "splash the Volga with oars, and scoop out the Don with helmets."
The princes of Chernigov and Smolensk, who ruled in Kyiv, considered Vsevolod their "master". Vsevolod was thinking about joining the Galician land to his possessions. Novgorod princes and posadniks were Vladimir proteges, and even the local archbishop was actually appointed by Vsevolod. By this time, the Vladimir princes had broken the "disobedience" of the Ryazan princes. According to the figurative expression of the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", Vsevolod could shoot them like "live arrows". The Vladimir-Suzdal princes sought to consolidate their power in the basin of the Volga, Kama (where the Mordovians and Mari lived) and the Northern Dvina, where Russian colonization was heading. Fortified cities such as Ustyug and Nizhny Novgorod were founded (1221). Trade was conducted with the peoples of the Caucasus along the Volga. With Transcaucasia, in addition, there were political ties.
Novgorod-Pskov land
Novgorod land bordered on Vladimir-Suzdal land in the southeast, Smolensk land in the south and Polotsk land in the southwest. Novgorod possessions extended far to the east and north, up to the Urals and the Arctic Ocean. A number of fortresses guarded the approaches to Novgorod. Ladoga was located on the Volkhov, protecting the trade route to the Baltic Sea. The largest Novgorod suburb was Pskov.
Owning the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, Novgorod was closely connected with the Estonian, Latvian and Karelian lands, in which the Novgorod boyars collected tribute from the population. Tribute was also levied from the land of the Emi (Finns) and from the land of the Sami (Lapps) located to the north of it, up to the borders of Norway. Finally, in the Novgorod possessions in the north along the Tersky coast of the White Sea and in Zavolochye (as the vast lands east of Beloozero, inhabited by various nations) tribute collectors were also sent from Novgorod, accompanied by armed detachments.
The main occupation of the Novgorod peasantry was agriculture, the technique of which reached a significant level for that time. However, the development of agriculture was not favored by soil and climatic conditions, and it could not meet the needs of the population. Along with agriculture, various crafts were developed: hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, and salt extraction. big role in the classroom rural population iron mining played. Novgorod was one of the largest craft and shopping centers Europe.
After the uprising of 1136, a boyar republic was formed in Novgorod Rus, dominated by large feudal lords. A similar public organization has also developed in the Pskov land. Formally, the supreme power belonged to the vechu. However, in reality, the veche was in the hands of the boyars, although they had to reckon with his opinion, especially if the veche decision was supported by the armed actions of the urban "black people". The archbishop played a major role in the political life of Novgorod. Under his chairmanship, the boyar council met. From among the boyars, the posadnik and the tysyatsky were approved at the veche, who exercised executive power in the city.
In their struggle against the boyars, the artisan population of the city won back certain rights. Associations of konchans (residents of urban areas - the ends of Goncharny, Plotnitsky, etc.), ulichans (street residents) and merchant brothers became a major force. Each end had its own elected self-government and had some power over a certain territory of the Novgorod region. But even these authorities remained under the control of the boyars. Princely power was also preserved in Novgorod. But the princes were invited by the veche and their rights were very limited, although they received certain incomes from administration, court and trade.
The first 100 years (1136-1236) of the existence of the Novgorod boyar republic, up to the Mongol invasion, were characterized by a sharp class struggle, more than once resulting in open uprisings of the urban poor and peasants. At the same time, the role of the merchants intensified, part of which acted on the side of the strong Vladimir-Suzdal princes.
Vladimir-Suzdal princes strengthened their positions in Novgorod. They seized lands here, appropriated the right to judge and collect taxes. Novgorod's resistance to the policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to repeated clashes, the consequences of which were heavily reflected in the position of the masses. Novgorodians had a particularly difficult time when there were breaks in the supply of Volga grain. When in 1230, a lean year, a severe famine broke out in the Novgorod land, the Vladimir prince closed the trade routes, and the boyars and merchants engaged in grain speculation. Driven to despair, the poor began to set fire to the houses of rich people who kept rye, and seize these stocks.
Galicia-Volyn land
Galician land occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. In the north, it bordered on the territory of Volhynia, in the northwest - with Poland, in the southwest, the "Ugric Mountains" (Carpathians) separated it from Hungary. In the mountains and behind them lay Carpathian Rus, largely captured by the Hungarian feudal lords in the 11th century. Part of Carpathian Rus (with the cities of Brasov, Barduev, etc.) remained behind Galician land. In the southeast, the Galician Principality included lands stretching from the Southern Bug to the Danube (on the territory of modern Moldavia and Northern Bukovina).
The Galician land, whose ancient center was Przemysl, became isolated by the beginning of the 12th century. into a separate principality under the rule of the great-grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise. The strong boyars that had developed here sought help from the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords in their feuds with the princes and for a long time hindered the political consolidation of the country. Volyn land, named after ancient city Volyn on the Guchva River, occupied a vast territory in the basin of the Western Bug and the upper reaches of the Pripyat with its tributaries. Volhynia and Galicia have been especially closely connected with each other for a long time.
Plowed agriculture has long been known here. In the Galician land there were rich salt mines and salt was exported. High level in the Galicia-Volyn land, the development of iron-making, jewelry, pottery and leather crafts reached. There were more than 80 cities in this region. Being at the crossroads of numerous water and land roads, the Galicia-Volyn land played a prominent role in European trade. In the XII century. The Galinka and Volyn principalities experienced a significant rise. Already Vladimirko Volodarevich (1141-1153) united under his authority all the Galician lands, including the cities along the Danube (Berlad and others). Around the same time, Kyiv and Volhynia withdrew from the power.
The reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1153-1187), one of the largest political figures in Rus' in the 12th century, was marked by a further rise in the Galician land and, in particular, by the extensive construction of new cities. Yaroslav Osmomysl, with the help of the Volyn princes, defeated the troops of the Kyiv prince and forced him to abandon his attempt to establish himself in the Danube lands. Yaroslav established peace with Byzantium, and sealed the alliance with Hungary by the marriage of his daughter to King Stephen (Istvan III). At the end of the XII century. the Galician and Volyn lands were united under the rule of the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich (1199-1205). In seeking to strengthen the princely power, he relied on an agreement with the cities and, above all, with the top of the urban population - "bad men", to whom he granted a number of privileges. Roman weakened the Galician boyars, he exterminated part of it, and some boyars fled to Hungary. The lands of the boyars were seized by the prince and used by him for distribution to the squad. Having overcome the resistance of the Suzdal prince Vsevolod, Yurievich, Roman's troops occupied Kyiv (1203), after which he proclaimed himself the Grand Duke.
The Roman curia sought an "alliance" with Prince Roman, but he rejected the proposal of Pope Innocent III. Having supported the struggle of the Hohenstaufen with the Welfs, Roman in 1205 set out on a big campaign against the ally of the Welfs, the Krakow prince Leshko, with the goal of advancing then to Saxony. However, the death of Roman in the campaign prevented the implementation of these broad plans and facilitated the destruction of the unity of the Galician and Volyn principalities that had arisen under him.
A long and devastating feudal war began (1205-1245), in which the boyars, acting with the help of Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, seized power in the Galician land. According to the agreement in Spis (1214), the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, with the sanction of the papal curia, tried to divide Galicia-Volyn Rus among themselves. However, the masses frustrated these calculations. As a result of the popular uprising that swept the country, the Hungarian garrisons were expelled.
In Volyn, with the support of service boyars and townspeople, princes Daniil and Vasilko Romanovichi established themselves, with a fight ousting the Polish feudal lords from the boundaries of the Russian land (1229). Daniel's troops, with the active help of the townspeople, inflicted a number of defeats on the Hungarian feudal lords and Galician boyars. Prince Daniil distributed the captured boyar lands to the nobility warriors. He maintained friendly relations with Lithuania and Mazovia, as well as with the Austrian Duke Frederick II, who was hostile to Hungary. The struggle for the independence of Galician Rus was bloody and dragged on for many years. Only in 1238 did Daniel finally take possession of the Principality of Galicia, and then Kiev, thus uniting the vast lands of Southwestern Rus' under his rule.
Polotsk-Minsk land
Polotsk-Minsk land occupied the territory along the rivers Western Dvina and Berezina, bordering Novgorod, Smolensk and Turov-Pinsk lands. In the northwest, the possessions of the Polotsk princes extended to the lower reaches of the Western Dvina, where the cities of Jersike and Koknese stood. Part of the population of the Lithuanian and Latvian lands recognized the power of the Polotsk princes and paid tribute to them.
The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Polotsk-Minsk land was agriculture, although the soil conditions were not very favorable for this. Polotsk constantly needed imported bread. Hunting for fur-bearing animals, fishing, and beekeeping have become widespread here. Furs were exported abroad (to the island of Gotland and to Lübeck). Feudal relations developed early in the Polotsk-Minsk land and a number of cities arose - Izyaslavl, Vitebsk, Usvyat, Orsha, Kopys, etc.
Polotsk-Minsk land for a short time obeyed Kyiv princes. Already under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, it passed into the possession of his son Bryachislav. The successor of the latter, Vseslav Bryachislavich (1044-1101), relying on the squad and using the help of cities, held power over the entire Pododka-Minsk land in his hands. The reign of Vseslav, according to the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", was a time of "glory" for this part of Rus'. But then feudal fragmentation intensified. In the twelfth century, a series of warring principalities formed; the most significant of them were Polotsk and Minsk. Internal wars weakened the Polotsk-Minsk land, which gradually lost its former influence in the Eastern Baltic. Despite stubborn resistance, the Polotsk people could not repel the invasion of the German crusaders. The prince of Polotsk, under an agreement with Riga (1212), lost his rights to the tribute of plums, he also lost land in southwestern Latgale. The cities of Jersike and Koknese were captured by the German knights. At the beginning of the XIII century. the foreign policy of Polotsk and Vitebsk was already controlled by the Smolensk prince, concluding agreements with German cities on their behalf.
Rus' and neighboring peoples
Rus' was surrounded by many non-Slavic peoples. Its influence extended to the peoples of the Baltic States (Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians), Finland and Karelia, some peoples of the North (Nenets, Komi, Yugra), the Volga region (Mordovians, Mari, part of the Bulgarians, Chuvashs and Udmurts), the North Caucasus (Ossetians and Circassians) , as well as the peoples of the Northern Black Sea region (Turkic nomadic tribal unions of the Polovtsians, Uzes and Torks) and Moldova. Rus' maintained ties with Transcaucasia (the population of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) and Central Asia.
The level of social development of these peoples was different: some of them still had a primitive communal system, while others had an already established feudal mode of production.
The peoples of the Baltic in the XI-XII centuries. experienced the formation of feudal relations. They didn't have states yet. The peasants lived in rural communities, significant groups of which were semi-feudal-semi-patriarchal associations headed by representatives of the landowning nobility - the "best", "oldest" people. Such associations were in Lithuania (Aukstaitia, Samogitia, Deltuva, etc.), in Latvia (Latgale, Zemgalia, Kors, etc.), in Estonia (Läanemaa, Harjumaa, Sakkala, etc.).
The population of the Baltics was engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts, traded with neighbors. Trade and craft settlements were formed in the Baltic States - the embryos of future cities (Lindanis, on the site of which Tallinn, Mezhotne, etc. grew up). The population adhered to pre-Christian beliefs. Remarkable cultural monuments of this time are the Estonian epic Kalevipoeg, Lithuanian and Latvian historical songs and fairy tales.
The ancient connections of the Baltic lands with Russia were interrupted at the beginning of the 13th century. by the invasion of German and Danish feudal lords. Using the contradictions among the rulers, the crusaders seized the Estonian and Latvian lands. The history of Lithuania developed differently. Here, on the basis of higher economic development, first an alliance of princes of different lands arose (1219), and then an early feudal state was formed with a grand duke at its head. The first Lithuanian prince was Mindovg (1230-1264). The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, with the help of Rus', managed to defend its independence, repulsing the advance of the German feudal lords.
In the Karelian land, which was part of the possessions of Novgorod Rus', agriculture dominated in the presence of developed crafts (hunting and fishing), crafts and trade. With the development of feudal relations in the 70s of the XIII century. Karelian land was allocated to an independent administrative region of the Novgorod Republic. Christianity began to spread widely among the Karelians. The culture and way of life of the Karelian people are vividly reflected in the outstanding monument of the folk Karelian-Finnish epic - "Kalevala". From the middle of the XII century. Swedish feudal lords began to attack Karelia with the aim of capturing and enslaving it. The Karelians, together with the Russians, repelled the onslaught of the Swedish invaders and dealt them heavy retaliatory blows.
The Novgorod Republic was subject to the Komi people, who lived on Vychegda. The Komi were engaged in hunting and fishing, but they also knew agriculture and handicrafts. They began to disintegrate the patriarchal-communal system, a communal nobility appeared - the elders.
Under the conditions of the tribal system, the Nenets (“Samoyeds”) lived on the shores of the White Sea, and the Yugra lived along the slopes of the Northern Urals. A prominent role in the history of the peoples of the Volga, Kama and Ural regions belonged to the early feudal state of the Volga Bulgarians. They had developed agriculture, and in large cities - Bolgar, Suvar and Bilyar, there were various crafts. Russian artisans also lived in Bolgar. Merchants from Rus', Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Iran and other countries came to this city. Bulgarian merchants traded grain with the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
Among the peoples of the Volga region, subject to the Vladimpro-Suzdal principality, the beginning of the formation of class relations was observed only among the Mordovians, who were engaged in agriculture and beekeeping. Here stood out the "princes" of individual regions. Among other peoples - the Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts, the primitive communal system still dominated. Bashkirs - nomads of the Urals have just begun to unite in tribal unions, headed by elders (aksakals). People's meetings also played an important role here.
The agricultural and pastoral peoples of the North Caucasus - the Alans (Ossetians) and the Adyghes, had unstable tribal unions. Separate tribal leaders were at enmity with each other. In the pastoral and pastoral societies of Dagestan, there were patriarchal-feudal associations headed by local rulers: nusals (in Avaria), shamkhals (in Kumukia), utsmiy. (in Kaitag). Some of them were dependent on Georgia.
The population of the Crimea, which consisted of Alans, Greeks, Armenians and Russians, continued to maintain political, commercial and cultural ties with Russia, despite the Byzantine claim to dominance in the coastal cities of Chersonese (Korsun), Sudak (Surozh) and Kerch (Korchev). The ties of the peoples of the North Caucasus and Crimea with Russia were weakened by the invasion of the Polovtsy in the Northern Black Sea region (mid-11th century).
On the territory of Moldova, subject to the Galician-Volyn princes, lived the Slavs and the Romanized population, which later developed into the Moldavian people. There were cities here: Maly Galich, Byrlad, Tekuch, etc.
A number of peoples that were part of the Old Russian state continued to develop within the framework of Russian feudal principalities and regions. Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian and Karelian peoples were formed in close contact with the Russian people.
The non-Slavic lands subject to Rus' bore the burden of exploitation. Russian princes and boyars enriched themselves at the expense of the oppressed peoples, receiving tribute from them - silver, furs, wax and other valuables. But at the same time, non-Slavic peoples developed in conditions of economic, political and cultural interaction with Rusyo. Cities were built on the lands of these peoples, Russian peasants and artisans settled, and merchants appeared. The local population approached the Russian working people and learned from them more high culture, was drawn into market relations and got acquainted with urban life and writing.
IN Central Asia an unification of the Kirghiz tribes took shape, covering the lands from the Altai Mountains to Baikal and the Sayan Range, as well as the Tuva and Minusinsk lands. The Kirghiz were engaged in cattle breeding, but they knew agriculture and crafts and traded with China. By the middle of the XII century. the Kirghiz became dependent on the Kara-Kitais (Khitans), who advanced from Northern China to Altai and captured the Yenisei and South Semirechye. The domination of the Kara-Kitais, which was difficult for the local population, was undermined by the performance at the end of the 12th century. Mongol-speaking tribes of the Naimans, who advanced from the Altai to the Irtysh and East Turkestan. Most of the Naimans subsequently gradually dissolved among various tribes and nationalities (Kyrgyz, Altai, Turkic-speaking tribes of present-day Kazakhstan), having completely lost their language. Later, all these lands fell under the rule of the Mongol khans.
Some nations Far East, in particular, the population of the Ussuri Territory, where the ancestors of the Nanai (Golds) lived, the Khoy River basin (the Udyagai tribe - later the Udege), the lower reaches of the Amur (Gilyaks - Nivkhs), were mainly engaged in hunting and lived in a primitive communal system. In the middle of the XII century. they fell under the power of the unification of the Jurchen tribes, who occupied the possessions of the Khitans and created the state of Jin. It included most of Manchuria, Northern China and Mongolia. This state existed until the start of the Mongol conquests.
Some peoples of North-Eastern Siberia and the Far East were at the level of Stone Age culture, settled in semi-underground dwellings, were engaged in fishing, hunting and, where conditions allowed, fishing for sea animals. Of the domestic animals they bred only dogs. Such was the way of life of the ancestors of the Ainu and Gilyaks (Nivkhs) in Sakhalin, the Itelmens and Koryaks in Kamchatka, the Yukaghirs in the Kolyma, in the lower reaches of the Lena and Khatanga. In especially harsh natural conditions, the life of the inhabitants of the Arctic (ancestors of the Eskimos and the coastal Chukchi) proceeded. Hunting and fishing existed Ob tribes - Mansi (Voguls) and Khanty (Ostyaks), and in the north Western Siberia- Nenets. To the east of the Yenisei, in the East Siberian taiga, hunting and fishing tribes of reindeer herders, the Evenks, lived. The ancestors of the Yakuts lived in the Baikal region; they raised cattle and horses. The socio-economic structure of these peoples remained more or less unchanged until the time when they came under the influence of Russian culture.
The international position of Rus'
During the period of feudal fragmentation, Rus', remaining a large European country, did not have a single state power that would conduct a foreign policy common to the whole country. In the middle of the XII century. Russian princes entered into allied relations with states that were part of mutually hostile coalitions.
Nevertheless, the largest Russian principalities had a significant impact on the fate of neighboring countries. Back in 1091, when Byzantium was looking everywhere for help against the Seljuk and Pecheneg Turks, it received military support from the Prince of Galicia Vasilko. In general, the Russian princes occupied a much more independent position in relation to the church center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium, than other European states in relation to the center of Catholicism, Rome.
The papal curia sought to draw Rus' into the orbit of its policy, but the most far-sighted papal emissaries already then saw the unfulfillment of these hopes. So, at the request of one of the ideologists of militant Catholicism - Bernard of Clairvaux on the possibility of introducing Catholicism in Rus', Bishop Matthew of Krakow in the middle of the 12th century. wrote that "the Russian people, with their multiplicity similar to the stars, does not want to conform to either the Latin or the Greek Church."
Russian princes actively intervened in the international relations of their time. The Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician princes allied to them maintained diplomatic relations with Byzantium, and their opponents, the Volyn princes, maintained diplomatic relations with Hungary. The army of the Galician princes contributed to the strengthening of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom and helped at the beginning of the XIII century. return the throne to the Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen II. The Russian princes contributed to the strengthening of the position of the Mazovian princes in Poland. Later, the princes of Mazovia were for some time in vassal dependence on Rus'.
Separate principalities of Rus' had significant armed forces, which managed to repulse, and partially subjugate the Polovtsians. The rulers of Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Germany and other countries sought dynastic ties with the Russian princes, especially with the strongest of them - Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn. Rumors about the treasures of Rus' struck the imagination of medieval chroniclers in France, Germany and England.
Russian travelers visited different countries. So, the Novgorod boyar Dobrynya Yadreykovich visited at the beginning of the 13th century. Byzantium. He left interesting description attractions of the country. Hegumen Daniel of Chernigov visited Palestine and also described his journey shortly after the first crusade. Chronicles and other monuments show that Russian people are well aware of a number of countries in Europe and Asia.
Nevertheless, the international position of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation deteriorated significantly. This was noted by contemporaries-publicists. The “Word on the Destruction of the Russian Land”, created in the first half of the 13th century, describes the beauty and wealth of Rus' and at the same time speaks with concern about the weakening of its international significance. Gone are the days when the sovereigns of neighboring countries trembled at the mere name of Rus', when the Byzantine emperor, fearing the Grand Duke of Kiev, “sent great gifts to him”, when the German knights rejoiced that they were far away “beyond the blue sea”.
The weakening of the foreign policy position of Rus', the reduction of its territory was facilitated by the feudal strife of the princes, which did not stop even when enemies invaded the country. The nomadic Polovtsians, having occupied the Northern Black Sea region, made devastating raids on the southern Russian lands, took away the Russian population into captivity and sold it into slavery. They undermined the trade and political ties of Rus' with the Black Sea region and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's possessions in the North Caucasus, as well as the loss of the Taman Peninsula and part of the Crimea, captured by Byzantium. In the west, the Hungarian feudal lords captured Carpathian Rus. In the Baltic states, the lands of the Latvians and Estonians came under attack from the German and Danish feudal lords, while the lands of the Finns and Karelians came under attack from the Swedish. In the XIII century. the Mongol invasion led to the conquest, ruin and dismemberment of Rus' itself.
Russian culture in the XII - XIII centuries.
The invasions of the invaders and natural disasters have led to the death of many precious works of architecture, painting, applied art and literature. The names of ordinary people who created for the secular and spiritual feudal lords “worn out by various cunning” masterpieces of wall painting and stone carving, the finest silver chasing and monumental architecture have almost not been preserved. Only a few of the Russian masters are mentioned in the chronicles that have come down to us. These are “stone builders” - Ivan from Polochan, Novgorodians Pyotr and Korova Yakovlevich, Pyotr Miloneg; Oleksa, who worked in Volhynia on the construction of cities; Volyn "hytrech" Avdey - a master of stone carving. The news about the Kiev artist Alimpiy, who painted the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, has survived. Known are the names of the Novgorod chasers Costa and Bratila, who left beautiful chased silver vessels, as well as the caster Avraamy, whose sculptural self-portrait has survived to our time. It was the labor of peasants and artisans that was the basis for the further development of Rus'.
The Russian language and culture were enriched as a result of interaction with the culture of a number of peoples. Such interaction is reflected in Suzdal architecture (which has connections with Georgian and Armenian architecture), in Novgorod painting (in which there are common motifs with Armenian fresco painting), in folklore and literature, where there are numerous references to other peoples, their culture and life.
"Golden Gate" in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. 12th century
Despite the dominance of theology, with the growth of experience accumulated in production and the development of enlightenment (although it affected only an insignificant part of society), the rudiments of knowledge in the field of the study of nature and history spread in Rus'. Literacy among the feudal nobility, the nobility and townspeople grew noticeably. In handwritten monuments, praises of “book teaching” were more and more often met, and “mind without books” was likened to a wingless bird: no one can fly, and a person cannot achieve “perfect reason without books”. In teaching, the main manuals were the Psalter, the Book of Hours, the Apostle. Common in medieval Europe the biblical idea of the world was expounded in the Six Days, which gave a theological and scholastic description of nature, in Kozma Indikoplov's work Topography, and in other works translated into Rus'. The Greek chronicles of George Amartol, John Malala and others introduced Russian readers to ancient history.
Along with sorcerers and "divine healers" doctors appeared - healers. In Kyiv, for example, lived the famous healer Agapit, who knew "what kind of potion heals what disease." Knowledge in the field of mathematics has increased, which has also been used in agriculture and in the calculation of taxes and in the preparation of chronological calculations in the annals.
The development of historical knowledge was vividly reflected in chronicles. In all major cities, from Novgorod to Kholm, from Novgorod to Ryazan, historical chronicles were kept and chronicles were compiled (holistic historical works, which were the processing of chronicles). Until our time, only the annals of Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn and Novgorod have been partially preserved. Most of them are imbued with the idea of a strong princely power. The close connection of the Letonians with the activities of the princely chancelleries led to the inclusion in the annals of business documents - diplomatic, administrative, military.
In Rus', as well as in other countries, there was a close connection between the development of crafts, applied folk art and architecture. Since religious ideology dominated society, the best examples of architecture were associated with the church, which was also a rich customer. With the transition to feudal fragmentation, architectural monuments became characterized by reduced sizes of temples, the simplification of their interior decoration, and the gradual replacement of mosaics by frescoes. The "cubic" temple with a heavy dome became the dominant type of church architecture. These changes were also associated with the rapid spread of stone architecture.
In Kievan land, the construction of churches and monasteries continued (the Church of the Savior on Berestov, St. Cyril's Church), but the constant transition of Kyiv from one prince to another created unfavorable conditions for the development of art here. A number of outstanding works of art originated in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, in particular in Vladimir-on-Klyazma with its "golden gates", white-stone architecture and stone carvings. Magnificent churches were erected here - the Assumption Cathedral, a masterpiece of world architecture, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral with stone carved reliefs, the four-pillar Church of the Intercession on the Nerl with decorative sculpture, and the Bogolyubovsky Prince's Palace, which included a cathedral in its complex of buildings.
Construction was carried out in Rostov, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod and other cities of North-Eastern Rus'. An example is the St. George's Cathedral (30s of the XIII century) in Yuryev-Polsky, the narthex of which was decorated with stone carvings.
In the Novgorod land of the time of the boyar republic, instead of large cathedrals built by princes, more modest ones appeared, but outstanding in terms of the perfection of forms and artistic painting temples. Among them stood out the world-famous Church of the Savior-Nereditsa (end of the XII century) in Novgorod ( Barbarously destroyed by the German fascists during the Second World War.). Of great interest, as a monument of art, is the Pskov Church of the Savior in the Mirozhsky Monastery (mid-12th century), painted with frescoes.
No less remarkable was the architecture of Galicia-Volyn Rus. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky, the complex of princely palace buildings in Galich, the Church of St. Panteleimon, etc. The architecture of the Hill has not been preserved, but it is known from the annals that Prince Daniel ordered the construction of three temples here, decorated with carved Galician white and Kholm green stone and columns “made of whole stone”. On the way to the city stood a "pillar" with a huge statue of an eagle. Architecture developed in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Gorodno (Grodno) and other cities. A variety of civil buildings also appeared - palace princely ensembles in Vladimir, Galich and other cities, using the traditions of the ancient Russian "mansion building".
In the visual arts, stylistic diversity increased, and local folk art often came into conflict with the dominant church ideology. For Novgorod painting (painting of St. Sophia Cathedral, Nikolo-Dvorishchenskaya and Annunciation churches) is characterized by bright, juicy brilliance. Particularly remarkable were the paintings of the Spas-Nereditsa - its walls, vault, pillars and arches. Novgorod icon painting is characterized by the same features as monumental painting, and is rooted in folk art.
The art of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' was peculiar. Local temples were filled with "various icons and precious stones without number." But little of this wealth has been preserved: the remains of the painting of the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals, the icon of Dmitry Solunsky. Even less has come down to us artistic monuments other regions of Rus'.
Applied arts and sculpture, less than painting related church canons, often reflected folk games and dances, fight scenes, etc. in their plots. The art of minting coins, seals and stone carving (decoration of cathedrals, stone icons, etc.) reached a significant rise. The motifs of folk art are richly reflected in embroidery, as well as in book decorations - headpieces, endings, capital letters, etc., where, along with floral and color ornaments, scenes of folk life and work are often presented.
The influence of folk art is also felt in one of the surviving drawings on the margins of the Pskov manuscript of the 12th century, which depicts a resting peasant, and next to him a shovel is drawn and there is an inscription: “Worker, work”.
In the monuments of literature of the period of feudal fragmentation, the ideas of the ruling class were carried out. In her best creations, calling on the princes for peace and the defense of the independence of the motherland, the aspirations of the broad masses of the people are also reflected.
Church preaching literature, the ideological orientation of which was to call the population to obedience to the authorities of heaven and earth, is represented by the works of Kliment Smolyatich, Cyril of Turov and others. These writers were widely educated and used the heritage of ancient literature. The famous scribe Kliment Smolyatich (mid-12th century) willingly refers to Omir (Homer), Aristotle and Plato, being attacked for this by representatives of orthodox theology.
The ideology of the ecclesiastical and partly secular nobility was vividly reflected in a remarkable literary monument of the 20s of the 13th century. - "Paterike" of the Kiev Caves Monastery. Imbued with the idea of the superiority of spiritual power over secular, it included 20 instructive stories about the life of this largest church feudal corporation.
An extensive range of ideas is contained in an outstanding monument of early noble journalism, preserved in two editions of the 12th-13th centuries, the “Word”, or “Prayer”, by Daniil Zatochnik. The brilliantly educated Daniel skillfully used the treasures of folklore to praise the strong princely power and denounce the autocracy of the secular and church nobility, harmful to Rus'.
As part of the chronicles, there are stories about princes (about Andrei Bogolyubsky, Izyaslav Mstislavich Volynsky, etc.), about major historical events - about the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, etc. These stories contain many details that testify to the growing interest in the human person, to the actions and experiences of individuals.
The greatest monument of Russian culture of the XII century. is the "Word of Igor's Campaign", dedicated to the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians (in 1185) of the Norgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The author is a supporter of the unity of the country, the unity of its strongest princes, the unity of the people. The Russian land for him is the whole of Rus', from the Taman Peninsula to the Baltic states, from the Danube to the Suzdal land. At a time when, as a result of princely strife and Polovtsian raids, “plowmen rarely shouted across the Russian land, but often crows crowed, dividing corpses among themselves,” the author praises peaceful labor. Describing one of the bloodiest internecine battles on the Nemiga and opposing peace to war, he uses images that depict the work of a peasant plowman. “The black earth,” the author writes, “was sown with bones under the hooves, watered with blood: they ascended the Russian land in grief.”
The Word is imbued with deep patriotism. The image of the Russian land is central in this work. The author calls on the princes to defend their homeland and condemns those who are engaged in strife (“forge sedition” and “sow arrows on the ground”). The author draws images of strong and powerful princes (Vsevolod the Big Nest, Yaroslav Osmomysl, etc.), who extended their power over a large territory, and were famous in neighboring countries.
The Tale of Igor's Campaign generously uses images folk poetry. This is felt in the description of nature, in the words of sorrow over the misfortunes that befell Rus', in those comparisons inherent in folk art used by the author when describing wars and battles. Unforgettable in brightness are the lyrical female images sung in the "Word" (the wife of Prince Igor Evfrosinya Yaroslavna and the "red" Glebovna). The Russian people, through the words of the author of the Lay, expressed their call for unity in the name of labor and peace, in the name of defending the motherland.
The development of Russian culture in the XII-XIII centuries. took place in close connection with the further development of the Russian nationality.
In the Russian land and during the period of feudal fragmentation, a common language was preserved (in the presence of various dialects) and common civil and church legal norms were in force. The people were alien to feudal strife and kept the memory of the former unity of Rus'. This was reflected primarily in epics.
