What are the traditions and customs of European peoples. We are all equal in our past
Talk about modern norms sex is not so interesting - the world is engulfed in globalization, the boundaries between peoples are blurred thanks to the Internet and the work of translators-localizers.
Fewer and fewer young people learn about sex from their parents, preferring to trust what they see in porn and read on online forums.
But if we go back to a time when there was no Internet or television, and knowledge about sex and everything connected with it was passed from mouth to mouth, we can discover a whole world of strange rituals, shocking myths and rituals incomprehensible to modern man. .
Hello Europe!
Source: iStock
Let's start with our territory - Eastern Europe.
Different sources attribute different countries to this geographical area, but the most common designation speaks of the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Poland, Moldova, Hungary, Bulgaria, Belarus.
Serbia, Albania, Slovenia and Montenegro are also very often added to this list.
Source: 35photo.ru
But let's put an end to this geographical confusion and recall that the settlements of the Slavs were considered the most numerous in Eastern Europe.
Initially, the Slavs were scattered pagan tribes, which were later united into Kievan Rus. Only after the adoption of Christianity, she was able to take a worthy place in the world political arena.
Sexual traditions of the Slavs
Source: liveinternet.ru
The new religion dictated its own rules to the inhabitants of Kievan Rus: from holidays to the abolition of the old sexual traditions.
Thus, Christian missionaries were struck by the dissolute life of the people of Kievan Rus. Records have come down to us from the 6th century by the Byzantine historian Mauritius the Strategist, who was outraged by the traditions of the Kupalo holiday, which is now known as Ivan Kupala.
Source: GIPHY
Many unmarried girls and boys on this day gave themselves up to free sexual, and even group (!) Joys on river banks and lakes. Similar orgies took place during other pre-Christian holidays.
In those days, no one thought about keeping virginity before marriage, and the familiar word “fornication” had a completely different meaning, which was preserved in the Russian “wander” and the Ukrainian “blukati”.
Prodigal Slavic girls
Source: blogspot.com
"Fornication" did not have any negative connotations, it meant a search, namely the selection of a suitable partner to create a family.
And in the best traditions of pre-Christian Rus', the search was carried out in a rather frank, "lascivious" manner. Naturally, for dogma-observant Mauritius, all this seemed unacceptable.
Times were changing, and already in 953 Princess Olga took the first steps in the fight against "sexual barbarism", she introduced compensation for the lack of virginity of a young bride.
Source: GIPHY
If it turned out that a man married an “unclean” woman, he had to pay a kind of tax to the state for her. True, history is silent about methods for checking the virginity of brides.
Fourteen years later, Prince Svyatoslav of Kiev, following his mother, introduced a new decree forbidding girls to lose their virginity with the Magi.
Now it seems wild, but before the wedding night, many brides went to the wise men in order to feel more confident and secure during sex with their husband.
Source: mensby.com
It is worth noting that similar traditions were common throughout the rest of the world, this was especially reflected in the history of Greece and Ancient Rome.
The Slavic people hardly accepted all the innovations, but by the 14th-15th centuries they considered the classic “fornication” to be something immoral and outdated. Of course, there were no more orgies and group sex on Ivan Kupala.
Christianity left behind only the most acceptable remnants of paganism. For example, the cheerful traditions of Maslenitsa and jumping over the fire on Ivan Kupala have survived to this day.
Balkan erotic epic
This is the name of the sensational work of the Yugoslav master of performance Marina Abramović. In it, the author talks about the traditions familiar to Serbia and the Balkans, which now look like the ravings of a madman.
We will not post the video material here, but we will list all the most interesting and shocking traditions of the peoples of the Balkans.
Source: realist.online
“With the help of eroticism, man tries to make himself equal to the gods. In Balkan folklore, men and women try to preserve indestructible energy through the use of erotica. They believed that erotic energy was something inhuman that could only come to a person from higher powers.”
Marina Abramovich
1. In the case when a horse or a bull looked weak and could not cope with the work provided for them, the man put his hand into his pants, rubbed his crotch and touched the animal. It was believed that this would help cure fatigue.
2. Balkan women had their own recipe for a fidelity potion. To prepare it, it was necessary to take a small fish, which had previously spent a day in the female vagina, grind it into powder and mix it with coffee. If a man drinks this “drink”, he will never leave his beloved.
3. If a woman had problems during childbirth, the husband took out his penis and crossed his wife's breasts with it. It was believed that this would greatly facilitate the process of having a baby.
4. To increase the fertility of the land, and with it the improvement of the harvest, a man dug a hole in the ground and masturbated with it. In addition to the Balkans, this tradition is also found in many peoples of the world, including African ones.
Source: Balcan Erotic Epic (2006)
5. To distract the enemy during the battle, the Balkan girls undressed and behaved as frankly as possible in relation to the enemy soldiers.
6. Now, to protect against the evil eye, we use a red thread or cover the child's face in the photo. In ancient times, the Balkans acted "a little" differently.
When the son left his home and went into adulthood, the mother ran her hand over her crotch and stroked her son's face, believing that this would protect him from the evil eye.
Source: Balcan Erotic Epic (2006)
7. The tradition of treating diseases with the help of bees was preserved in the Balkans until the 19th century. But the locals did not just plant a bee on a sore spot. They sat down with their bare ass on a whole piece of evidence, often not limited to just one or two.
8. To protect himself from impotence, before the wedding, the man went to the bridge, made three holes in it and copulated with each, saying "As I insert this bridge into the hole, I will insert it to my wife in the same way." Almost all men firmly believed in the effectiveness of this method.
We are all equal in our past
The ringing of bells at Christmas time came to us from winter pagan holidays.
When the Earth was cold, it was believed that the sun died, and evil spirit very strong. To exorcise the evil spirit, it was necessary to make a lot of noise. The Christmas tradition of ringing bells, singing and shouting at the same time has survived to this day. Church bells ring out at Christmas time in churches all over the world. But not to drive out evil spirits. Thus people welcome the coming of Christ. In Scandinavia, the ringing of bells means the end of work and the beginning of the holiday, in England - the death knell at the funeral of the devil and the greeting of Christ.
Christmas tree for birds - Scandinavian tradition. People try to share their joy on Christmas with other living beings.
Immediately on Christmas or the day before, seeds or bread crumbs are taken out to the birds. This is a sign that the new year will be successful. A party outside adds to the fun of a party at home.
Brass singing Christmas carols is one of the delightfully noisy Christmas traditions. She probably came from paganism, because. to exorcise evil spirits it was necessary to make noise. It is currently followed in Germany and the Scandinavian countries. A musical quartet sings four Christmas carols near a bell tower or church.
The Christmas carols end with a joyful chime that marks the beginning of Christmas.
Light was an important component of winter pagan holidays. With the help of candles and bonfires, the forces of darkness and cold were expelled. Wax candles were distributed to the Romans on the feast of Saturnalia. In Christianity, candles are considered an additional symbol of the significance of Jesus as the Light of the world.
In Victorian England, merchants gave candles to their regular customers every year.
In many countries, Christmas candles signify the victory of light over darkness.
Candles on the tree of paradise gave rise to our all-time favorite Christmas tree.
In the Scandinavian countries and Germany, on December 24th, Santa Claus knocks on the door, while in England and America his visit is secret. Santa Claus allegedly enters the house through the chimney.
In 1843, the Englishman Horsley drew the first Christmas card. 1,000 copies of the postcard were sold that year in London. Publisher Louis Prang popularized Christmas cards in 1875. He held a nationwide competition in America for the best Christmas card design.
The improvement of the postal system and the reduction in the cost of postage made it possible to send Christmas cards to many friends all over the world.
It is assumed that the first Christmas song appeared in the 4th century AD, but it was somewhat gloomy. In Renaissance Italy, lighter and more joyful Christmas carols appeared. They were already beginning to justify their name (Christmas carols - carols (English) - from the French "caroler" - dance to the sound).
Saint Nicholas is traditionally considered the giver of gifts. In Rome, it was a tradition to give gifts to children on the feast of Saturnalia. Jesus himself, Santa Claus, Befana (Italian female Santa Claus), Christmas gnomes, various saints can act as a gift giver. According to an old Finnish tradition, gifts are scattered around the houses by an invisible man.
It is believed that the first undecorated Christmas trees appeared in Germany in the 8th century. The first mention of spruce is associated with the monk Saint Boniface. Boniface preached to the Druids a sermon on the Nativity. To convince the idolaters that the oak was not a sacred and inviolable tree, he cut down one of the oaks. When the felled oak fell, it knocked down all the trees in its path except the young spruce. Boniface presented the survival of the spruce as a miracle and exclaimed: "Let this tree be the tree of Christ."
In the future, Christmas in Germany was celebrated by planting young fir trees.
In a German source dated 1561, it says that no more than one Christmas tree can stand in the house at Christmas. In the 17th century, the Christmas tree was already a common Christmas decoration in Germany and the Scandinavian countries. At that time, the Christmas tree was decorated with figurines and flowers cut out of colored paper, apples, waffles, gilded gizmos, and sugar.
The tradition of decorating a Christmas tree is associated with a paradise tree hung with apples.
The success of the Christmas tree in Protestant countries was even greater thanks to the legend that Martin Luther himself was the first to come up with the idea of lighting candles on a Christmas tree. One evening he was walking home, writing a sermon. The glitter of the stars twinkling among the fir trees filled him with awe.
To demonstrate this magnificent picture to the family, he put up a Christmas tree in the main room, fixed candles on its branches and lit them.
The Christmas tree owes its popularity in England to the German Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria. In the 17th century, German immigrants brought the Christmas tree tradition to America.
The first outdoor Christmas trees with electric garlands appeared in Finland in 1906.
Every year in Wales, a festival of Christmas carols is held.
Choirs across the country are vying to have their anthem chosen as the official Christmas carol. These church choirs travel around the cities of Wales and sing Christmas carols past and present.
The tradition of choosing a national Christmas carol dates back to the 10th century.
The first guest is the first person who enters the house and "lets in" Christmas (in some countries this tradition does not refer to Christmas, but to the New Year). Sometimes such a person is even specially hired to ensure that everything is done properly, as there is a superstition associated with the first guest. The first guest should hold a spruce branch in his hand. He enters the front door, walks through the house, and exits through the back door. He is presented with bread and salt or some small gift as a symbol of hospitality. The first guest must be a dark-haired man. If a woman became the first guest, this is a bad omen.
Holly is an evergreen shrub with red poisonous berries, dark green foliage and thorns. The brilliance of this plant has made it a natural symbol of the rebirth of life in the winter whiteness of northern Europe. It is believed that the holly drives away the winter cold and evil spirits. In England, a holly with thorns is called "he", without thorns - "she". Which holly (with or without thorns) is brought into the house first at Christmas depends on who will manage the household in the coming year.
Before the appearance of the Christmas tree in the middle of the nineteenth century, there was a so-called "kissing branch" in England. It was in the form of a double ring decorated with garlands, green branches, holly, ivy, apples, pears, lit candles and mistletoe. If a girl accidentally found herself under this branch, she was allowed to kiss.
Previously, during the celebration of Christmas, one of the main dangers was Christmas candles. Therefore, buckets of water were kept in the living rooms in case of fire. The idea to use electric garlands instead of wax candles belongs to the English telephone operator Ralph Morris. By that time, the filaments of electric light bulbs were already used in telephone switchboards, it only occurred to Morris to hang them on a Christmas tree.
The ancient Druids considered mistletoe to be a sacred plant, a symbol of eternal life. The Romans valued her as a symbol of peace. Kissing under the mistletoe is also a Roman tradition.
The first Christmas trees were decorated with fresh flowers and fruits. Later, sweets, nuts, and other foods were added. Then - Christmas candles.
Such a load was certainly too heavy for the tree. German glassblowers began producing hollow glass Christmas ornaments to replace fruit and other heavy ornaments.
The first plum puddings were made in the 17th century. The pudding was prepared in large copper cauldrons a few weeks before Christmas by the whole family. When cooking, each member of the family made a wish. Four items were placed in the pudding: a coin, a thimble, a button and a ring. Later, when the pudding was eaten, every item found in the pudding had a meaning. A coin meant wealth in the new year, a button meant a bachelor life, a thimble for a girl meant an unmarried life, a ring meant marriage (marriage).
Before the advent of the Christmas tree, the Christmas pyramid was considered the main Christmas decoration in Germany and northern Europe. It was a wooden structure in the shape of a pyramid, hung with vegetation and ornaments. Gifts or sweets were placed on the shelves of the pyramid. With the growing popularity of the Christmas tree, the functions of the Christmas pyramid have been taken over by the Christmas tree.
The Christmas log should be cut down by the head of the family, not bought from someone else. It should burn in the fireplace along with the remains of last year's Christmas log. The log must burn all twelve days of Christmas. There is a superstition that if a person sees his shadow cast from a fireplace where a log is burning, without a head, he will die next year. The ashes of the Christmas log heal diseases and protect the home from lightning strikes.
In the Middle Ages, religious holidays were actually the only holidays. Therefore, people sought to extend these holidays as long as possible. Over time, instead of one day, Christmas turned into 12 - from Christmas to Epiphany. In wealthy families, it was customary to give each other gifts for each of the twelve days. This made the Christmas hymn "The Twelve Holy Days" very popular. Presumably, the appearance of this hymn dates back to the 16th century.
In England The most pleasant part of the Christmas celebration is considered to be a festive family dinner on December 25, which is preceded by a church service. The head of the Christmas table in Britain is a baked turkey stuffed with a mixture of breadcrumbs and spices or chestnuts. A special redcurrant or cranberry sauce is prepared for the bird. As an addition to the Christmas feast, ham, bacon, small sausages and various vegetables (boiled or baked) are served. Well, the favorite dessert is, of course, Christmas pudding - a steamed cake made of dense dough with dried fruits. Before serving, the pudding is doused with cognac and set on fire - it looks very impressive!
Christmas is a great holiday established in remembrance of the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem. Christmas is one of the most important Christian holidays, a public holiday in more than 100 countries of the world.
The first information about the celebration of Christmas by Christians dates back to the 4th century. The question of the real date of the birth of Jesus Christ is controversial and ambiguously resolved among church authors. Perhaps the choice of December 25 is associated with the pagan solar holiday “Birth of the Invincible Sun” that fell on that day, which, with the adoption of Christianity in Rome, was filled with new content.
According to one of the modern hypotheses, the choice of the date of Christmas occurred due to the simultaneous celebration by the early Christians of the Incarnation (the conception of Christ) and Easter; accordingly, as a result of adding 9 months to this date (March 25), Christmas fell on the day of the winter solstice.
The feast of the Nativity of Christ has five days of forefeast (from December 20 to 24) and six days of afterfeast. On the eve, or on the eve of the holiday (December 24), a particularly strict fast is observed, called Christmas Eve, since on this day juicy is eaten - wheat or barley grains boiled with honey. According to tradition, the Christmas Eve fast ends with the appearance of the first evening star in the sky. On the eve of the holiday, Old Testament prophecies and events related to the Nativity of the Savior are remembered.
Christmas services are performed three times: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the Nativity of Christ in the bosom of God the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of every Christian.
In the 13th century, during the time of St. Francis of Assisi, a custom arose to exhibit mangers in churches for worship, in which the figure of the Infant Jesus is placed. Over time, mangers began to be set up not only in the temple, but also in houses before Christmas. Home santons - models in glazed boxes depict a grotto, baby Jesus lies in a manger, next to the Mother of God, Joseph, an angel, shepherds who came to worship, as well as animals - a bull, a donkey. Entire scenes from folk life are also depicted: next to the holy family, peasants are placed in folk costumes and so on.
Church and folk customs are harmoniously intertwined in the celebration of Christmas. In Catholic countries, the custom is well known caroling- walking around the houses of children and youth with songs and good wishes. In response, carolers receive gifts: sausage, roasted chestnuts, fruits, eggs, pies, sweets, etc. Stingy owners are ridiculed and threatened with troubles. The processions involve various masks dressed in animal skins, this action is accompanied by noisy fun. This custom was repeatedly condemned by church authorities as pagan, and gradually they began to go with carols only to relatives, neighbors and close friends.
The tradition of lighting a ritual fire in the hearth testifies to the remnants of the pagan cult of the sun in Christmas time - "Christmas log". The log was solemnly, observing various ceremonies, brought into the house, set on fire, while praying and carving a cross on it (an attempt to reconcile the pagan rite with the Christian religion). They sprinkled the log with grain, poured it with honey, wine and oil, put pieces of food on it, addressed it as a living being, raised glasses of wine in his honor.
During the celebration of Christmas, a custom was established to break "Christmas bread"- special unleavened wafers consecrated in churches during Advent - and eat it both before the festive meal and during greetings and congratulations to each other on the holiday.
A characteristic element of the Christmas holiday is the custom to install in houses decorated spruce tree. This pagan tradition originated among the Germanic peoples, in whose rituals spruce was a symbol of life and fertility. With the spread of Christianity among the peoples of Central and Northern Europe, the spruce decorated with multi-colored balls acquires a new symbolism: they began to install it in houses on December 24, as a symbol of the tree of paradise with abundant fruits.
Christmas customs and traditions in Great Britain
At Christmas all windows rural houses lit by candles in the UK, so among the locals, the night around Christmas is called "candle night". In England today, on Christmas Eve, instead of the traditional Christmas log, a thick Christmas candle is lit. In Wales, lit candles on the Christmas holiday decorated not only private houses in rural areas, but also rural churches and chapels. Candles for decorating the church were made and presented to the priest by the inhabitants of the parish.
In many villages, shortly before the holiday, women held competitions for the best decoration of Christmas candles. These decorations were made from strips of colored paper, foil, gold and silver threads, bright ribbons, etc. In some areas of Wales, with the same decorated and lit candles in their hands, the inhabitants of the parish went to the morning mass, which began at 2-3 in the morning. Many similar candles were lit that night in private houses.
Ever since the Middle Ages, the church began to use the old rites of disguise in order to give the people a more vivid impression of biblical stories. Thus arose "mysteries"- dramatic performances of such religious scenes as the annunciation, the visit of the baby Christ by the three wise men of the East, etc. The participants in the dramatic versions of biblical stories were usually masked or with a face covered with a scarf, like the performers of ancient pagan rites. Among the representations of this kind, the dramatic game-pantomime about St. George and the Dragon, widely known in many other countries.
ABOUT masquerades and pantomimes for Christmas, there is evidence already from the XIV-XV centuries. So, in one of the sources it is reported that in 1377 a Christmas pantomime was arranged at the Scottish royal court to amuse the little prince Richard. In the treasury registers of Scotland in the 15th century. the funds spent on the arrangement of court masquerades for Christmas are often transferred.
Another one was connected with the arrangement of masquerades. interesting custom in Britain: for 12 days of Christmas time in each palace or castle, the manager of the entire festival was chosen, called in England "Lord of Chaos"(Lord Misrule), and in Scotland - "imaginary abbot"(Abbot of Mock). The lord of disorder was chosen by the one who could joke well, arrange various entertainments, carnivals. He himself selected his retinue, the members of which were dressed up in a bright dress, decorated with ribbons and bells.
In Scotland, in the retinue of the "imaginary abbot" such characters, characteristic of folk processions of mummers, as Hobbie-horse - "Hobbie-horse" - a guy who portrayed a horse, participated. Such a noisy company, and especially its leader, was allowed to do whatever they want - break into any house to play some kind of joke on their inhabitants, arrange games, dances and other entertainment. This custom was banned by Henry VIII.
In many villages in Scotland, on Christmas Day, men and boys, led by pipers and accompanied by many people, went outside the village and played football, balls on some lawn, organized various sports competitions: running, hammer throwing exercises, etc. The winner in all games he received a beret decorated with feathers and ribbons; after the competition, the youth sang and danced, and in the evening, with the winner at the head, they returned to the village. In the evening, the winner of the competition presided over the ball.
For all these old traditional customs c great strength the new Protestant church collapsed in the 17th century. The feast of Christmas was especially persecuted in Puritan Scotland. Every pagan rite and custom, even the most innocent, was ruthlessly cursed by the church. So, according to the records of the church session in 1574, several people were accused of playing, dancing and singing Christmas songs on this holiday.
Even baking Christmas bread was considered a crime by Protestant clergy. In December 1583 Glasgow bakers were required to name those for whom they baked Christmas bread. In 1605, five people were called to court in Aberdeen for walking around town at Christmas wearing masks and dancing. Finally, in 1644, the celebration of Christmas was banned throughout England by a special Act of Parliament.
After such persecution in Scotland, the celebration of Christmas never reached its former popularity, only some rites survived, most of them began to coincide with the New Year. And now December 24-25 there are working days, and the New Year is considered a holiday - January 1-2.
In England, already at the end of the 17th century. Christmas began to be celebrated again, but during 19th century the rites that accompanied him changed, and by the beginning of the 20th century. From a great social event throughout the community, Christmas has become a purely family holiday, only some of its old customs have survived to this day. Everywhere, for example, the custom is observed among the British to exchange gifts on Christmas Day. With the introduction of Christianity, this custom was associated with the bringing of gifts to the baby Jesus by three magicians of the East. In memory of this, gifts are given first of all to children.
Good old gentleman carrying gifts to children Santa Claus, red-cheeked, with a long white beard, dressed in a red fur coat and a high red cap. Some identify Santa Claus with the creatures of the underworld - gnomes, which, in their opinion, confirms his appearance. Usually at Christmas gifts are received not only by children, but also by adults, before dinner they are presented to everyone by the youngest member of the family.
Since the 19th century it has become customary to exchange greeting cards- instead of obligatory once personal congratulations on the holiday. In 1843, the first Christmas card was printed in the printing house, and soon their production became a special branch of printing production. In the design of postcards, motifs of old traditional Christmas customs are often found: a robin, which since the 18th century. often replaces the wren in rituals, branches of eternal greenery - holly, ivy, mistletoe, and on Scottish postcards the image of heather twigs intertwined with tartan ribbons is the national symbol of Scotland. Such postcards are sent in large numbers to Scottish emigrants around the world for Christmas as a reminder of the Motherland they left.
Christmas dinner and today includes such traditional dishes as stuffed turkey (in the British) or roast goose (in Wales, Ireland) and an indispensable plum pudding. The old custom of decorating the house for Christmas with branches of eternal greenery - ivy, holly, etc. is still preserved. As before, they strengthen a sprig of white mistletoe above the door. According to custom, once a year, on Christmas Eve, men have the right to kiss any girl who stops under a decoration from this plant. This does not happen often, and in order not to waste time in vain, one person decided to decorate a mirror with amela branches so that he could kiss all the girls who stopped to admire themselves.
Apparently, the late transformation of the custom of decorating houses with evergreens was
Christmas Tree, as a symbol of undying nature. The custom of decorating spruce appeared in England relatively recently, in the middle of the 19th century, and was brought here from Germany. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert hosted the first Christmas tree for their children at Windsor, and the trend quickly spread. Now in almost every English house for Christmas they decorate the Christmas tree with multi-colored shiny toys and sweets, at the top of it they usually strengthen the Christmas fairy or a large silver star. During the Second World War, England, where the Norwegian king and government were at that time, was first smuggled out of occupied Norway by a huge fir tree, which was installed in Trafalgar Square. Since then, such a spruce tree has been annually presented by the city of Oslo to the British capital, and it is installed on the same square. She is decorated Christmas decorations, multi-colored electric light bulbs.
Finally, from the once widespread processions of mummers and dramatic performances, those arranged in all theaters originate, concert halls during Christmas time Christmas pantomimes, masquerade balls. The second day of Christmas in the church calendar is dedicated to St. Stephen. In England this day is called boxing day(Boxing day). This name comes from the custom to install special piggy bank boxes in churches before Christmas, where offerings for the poor were lowered.
On the day of St. Stephen, the pastor distributed the collected money among his parishioners. Later, the boxes were no longer installed in the church, but the poor of the parish gathered in groups on St. Stefan with a box-piggy bank went around the houses, receiving small coins. Such groups consisted of apprentices, apprentices, messengers, etc. And now the tradition has still been preserved to present small amounts of money to clerks, messengers and servants on this day.
In England and Scotland, an essential part of the Christmas holiday is ritual food- dinner on Christmas Eve and lunch on the first day of Christmas. The British and the Scottish nobility, descended from the Scandinavians or Normans, throughout the Middle Ages, the traditional Christmas dish was a boar's head.
However, among the Celtic peoples, this dish never appeared on holiday tables. Perhaps the reason for this was the ancient Celtic ban on eating pork. Such a ban persisted for a long time in some remote corners of the Highlands.
In Scotland, Ireland and Wales, a piece of roast beef or goat meat was usually prepared for Christmas dinner - the Christmas bull (Yule bull) or the Christmas goat (Yule goat). But gradually, roasted (in Ireland, Wales) or smoked (in Scotland) goose became a traditional meat dish for Christmas. It has remained the main Christmas dish to this day in Wales and Scotland (Highland). In England, since the XVIII century. its place was taken by fried or stuffed turkey.
had ritual significance drinks and foods made from cereals. In Aberdeenshire and the north-east of Scotland it was customary to place on the table on Christmas Eve a large goblet of a special Christmas drink called sowans. It was prepared from fermented and fermented barley grain, with the addition of honey and cream. The drink was poured into small wooden cups, at the bottom of which some object was placed: if the drinker saw a ring at the bottom, this is for a wedding, a coin for wealth, a button for celibacy, etc.
For many centuries, among all the inhabitants of the British Isles, a special dish was a common food at Christmas. plum porridge oatmeal(plum-porridge), cooked in meat broth, bread crumbs, raisins, almonds, prunes and honey were also added to it and served very hot. During the XVIII century. plum-porridge is gradually being replaced plum pudding(plum-pudding), and by the middle of the XIX century. the latter becomes the main dish of the Christmas table. Plum pudding is made from bread crumbs with the addition of various spices, fruits, poured with rum and lit before serving. It remains the custom to hide small silver coins and jewelry in the Christmas pudding - "for good luck".
In the past it was customary for the Scots, Irish and Welsh to bake for Christmas special bread. It was supposed to be baked only on Christmas Eve, between sunset and sunrise. Christmas bread was a large round cake, on which a cross was cut with a knife before baking. They also baked Christmas oatmeal cakes - round, with jagged edges and a hole in the middle; judging by the shape, they were supposed to symbolize the sun. It was the custom in the Highlands to invite every passer-by to the house at Christmas. The guest was offered a piece of such a cake with cheese and a sip of alcohol.
In all wealthy houses, baking was carried out and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. On the eve of Christmas Eve, on the so-called "small christmas eve"(Swedish - lille ju-lafton, Norwegian - julaften, Danish - ju-leaften), rich alms were distributed, especially in the houses of priests, to each house included in the parish. The gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, candles.
On Christmas Eve before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down for a festive treat. With Christmas comes the general celebration; there is not even a single poor house where this event would not be celebrated. The smallest loaf of bread is always kept hidden from one Christmas to the next, or even longer. Often there were cases that an 80-90-year-old woman kept a bread cake baked in her youth.
And now in the UK they are still preparing for the New Year special traditional dishes. Breakfast is usually served with oatmeal, pudding, a special kind of cheese - kebben (Kebben), for lunch - roast goose or steak, pie, apples baked in dough. New Year's oat cakes among the Celtic peoples had a special shape - round with a hole in the middle. We tried not to break them during baking, as this would be a bad omen.
The table decoration is christmas cake. According to an old recipe, it should be stuffed with the following items, which allegedly predict fate for the coming year: a ring - for a wedding, a coin - for wealth, a small horseshoe - for good luck.
Currently baked in Scotland for New Year's table large round shortbread cake, with tucks around the edges, decorated with sugar-cooked almonds, nuts, sweets, sugar and marzipan figurines. Every year a huge number of such cakes are sent to all corners the globe Scots in exile. They are usually decorated with national emblems - heather, Scottish cross, arms crossed over the sea, mountains, etc.
In the UK you will be met Christmas carols, church mass and pudding and turkey typical of English cuisine. On Christmas Eve, crowds of people gather in Trafalgar Square, England's main Christmas tree, where charitable organizations put on performances for adults and children with caroling. Approximately the same thing happens in Leicester Square, where a fun fair takes place. Residents and tourists can have fun at carnivals and festivities in Coven Garden, warm up at the traditional Christmas swimming competition for the Peter Pan Prize, and then relax in Hyde Park and on the Serpentine Pond.
There are especially many people in Edinburgh on New Year's Eve on Princes Street. New Year's services are going on in the churches. fruit and pastry shops work all night. The onset of the New Year is heralded by the ringing of bells, whistles and sirens of factories. After 12 o'clock everyone congratulates each other and goes home to the festive tables.
Christmas in England loomed as early as October, when most of them sat at home at the table and, sticking out the tip of the tongue in diligence, wrote Christmas Lists to the Father of Christmas with the most serious look. Shopkeepers in England, don't be fools, started selling various thematic junk just from that moment ... In general, all this is an established age-old Tradition. In the United Kingdom, there are probably more traditions, rituals, omens, jumps, bziks and other things associated with the winter festivities than in the rest of Europe. Moreover, there are old traditions, and there are relatively young ones, but they have already managed to firmly cement themselves in the bowels of the British mentality. Here, for example: from the end of the 19th century, Advent Calendars came to England from Germany. Initially, they had a purely religious "adult" purpose, but soon children began to use them. And now every year, starting from the first of December, the whole of underage Britain is "counting down to the Advent", and the calendars themselves can be crazy: flashing, chocolate, waffle, in the form of Martian heads ... In fairness, we note that most of the buildings here are only beginning to be decorated two weeks before Christmas. Trees, many of which still have leaves, are entangled with tinsel (glitter), wires with light bulbs (flicker), tartan ribbons (curl and rustle) and many more. other manifestations of the British sense of beauty. The lawns in front of the houses are usually completely hidden by statues of the Father of Christmas, wreaths of holly and ivy, and in the windows - so that no one else seems to be enough - they turn on the welcoming Scandinavian lights! All this, in fact, is called Tradition. The kids are really good here. On Christmas Eve, they go to bed after prayers and Christmas stories are read to them. Before that, they always leave a mince pie and milk for Father Christmas (and a carrot for a certain Rudolf) - otherwise you won’t see gifts! , where under the Christmas tree, in stockings or in special socks, lies “what they have been waiting for so long.” Around lunchtime (one in the afternoon), relatives and friends come to the house, everyone kisses, squeezes, gives Presents, enthusiastically discusses some some nonsense and, finally, they sit down for a Christmas dinner. Actually, some holidays the British, with their dull insipid cuisine, still somehow manage not to spoil it from a gastronomic point of view - Christmas is one of them. shrimp appetizers, then the main thing - turkey in currant sauce, and for dessert - Christmas Pudding or Christmas Pie ... But usually it's much worse! At three o'clock in the afternoon, old Queen Elizabeth is on TV with a festive speech to the British m-m ... people, then they still stare at the box for some time, in which they prepared "all the best and funniest", and then, if the family is really correct, they play charades or those requiring ingenuity Board games. The true home of Christmas and the Cradle of most traditions is undoubtedly London. These days the atmosphere in the metropolis is just electric. The streets sparkle under the influence of the magic of thousands of magic light bulbs and other design ideas. The fresh air tingles cheeks and nose, and the frost transforms the city into the Christmas Wonderland described by Dickens - the British, by the way, love to make this comparison ... But for all that, London allows you to experience all the shades of the "holiday atmosphere". The most luxurious junk is thrown into the windows, choirs of all stripes sing in the corners, in the passages and in churches, all drinking and eating establishments offer special menus and some special entertainment, and the streets, theaters (open and closed) and squares are flooded with entertainers , pop groups and even clowns.
But, for both ours and the London man, X-mas is first and foremost, of course, Phaser Shopping. Despite the generally poorly disguised high cost, Christmas sales in London usually do not let you get bored. Sales are officially announced on the twentieth of December, but it is important to know that a really serious price reduction occurs after Christmas, when people no longer need to buy gifts from people. The largest discounts are provided by department stores - stores department (this year, mostly on December 27). The most shopping slaughter can be observed in the West End and in the Oxford Street area. The most luxurious place is Selfridges dear to the Russian heart (and in general the center of Russian culture in London!) Each time it is somehow thematically decorated according to some one plan, and it is always done, of course, with great taste. In another no less pleasant place, Liberty's (true English fabrics for the production of women's clothing are found here), prices are reduced by up to 50% during sales periods. In addition, the store is located in a 16th-century building and its showcases are among the most beautiful in London. A store named Simpson's is interesting in that on all its five floors they sell almost exclusively goods for gentlemen. It is doubtful that anyone other than the British would have ventured into such a rigid specialization. Harrod's is considered the flagship of London, and indeed British supermarkets - they say there are people who just spent several days looking at its windows ... That's where everything your heart desires is really sold! And that's all at exorbitant schizophrenic prices. But what is here what really pleases me is that "the staff works until the last whim of the last customer is satisfied"... Discounts in this store are also "the best" and in crazy waste reach up to 75%! common sense, these discounts are about the same as if we reduced 75 cm from the height of a skyscraper ... In London, it is customary to start sales on Saturday, but Harrod's announces them half a week later, on Wednesday, without any doubt in their own superiority. And it does, as they say, on the first day of the sale, a turnover equal to a month. And they probably don't lie. Here it is - the power of habits and traditions. For the Christmas sale (with the most significant discounts for the year), all stores are preparing in advance, from about mid-October. The windows are populated by angels, snowmen, reindeer broods and Santa Claus cohorts. By the way, keep in mind that you can give everything in the world for Christmas in England, from Adam to Potsdam, depending on your tastes and capabilities. The latest trend is to cut down on time and stress when shopping, and to get perverted and buy something SO-THAT no one dares to call junk! For example, a ticket for a helicopter ride (the whole fashion now). In this regard, the Internet, which distributes such things, is stepping on the tail of traditional shopping centers. For people with less quirks, the opportunity to pervert materializes in a more modest disease - in the choice of 100,000 varieties of festive wrapping paper ... Have you bought gifts? And what did they turn into? And here we are - look - what a nice little piece of paper ... etc., etc. ...
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Discovering something new, drawing ideas, learning from experience is always interesting. We offer to learn some children's customs and "chips" of European countries.
The creators of the concept store for children MushRoom. otherchildren bring from Europe not only children's wardrobe items, but also interesting facts, knowledge and invaluable experience. Today we will learn about the traditions and customs associated with children in different countries.
1.
Denmark. The dummy tree.
At 192 0, the Danes came up with a ritual of saying goodbye to babies with a pacifier. So that the children do not feel sad and painlessly part with the pacifier, parents often arrange a real holiday of growing up: a trip to the zoo, a picnic, attractions. At the end of the holiday, the “little adult” solemnly says goodbye to the “Malyshov's” accessory, hanging it on a special “sap tree”. Sometimes a touching note is attached to this: "Dear nipple, thank you for serving me so well, but I'm already a big boy / girl, and now the tree will take care of you."
And at night, a nipple fairy comes, who, instead of a voluntarily given nipple, brings a gift under the pillow to the baby.A very sweet and reverent ritual, without any theft of the notorious dummy by dogs, cats and other animals.
2. Germany. Schultute
German first-graders go to school not with the usual bouquet for the teacher, but with the so-called “first-grader bag”. This tradition appeared in Germany in the 19th century, and until now the beginning of the school year is impossible to predict. set without schoolchildren happily carrying their cone-shaped gifts.
It is believed that the baby is waiting for a long and responsible educational path, and parents want to sweeten this event a little for the child.
Previously, the “first grader’s bag” was filled exclusively with sweets, but now parents collect everything that their child will like as a gift: sweets, school supplies, toys and other little things that are pleasant for children. The first-graders are solemnly photographed with their Schultüte, and then open them in the classroom or at home. The main thing is not to overdo it so that the gift does not weigh more than the baby :)
3. France. Doudou
For French kids, getting to know the world begins with mom, dad and "dudu". This is a soft handkerchief with a toy head. This exists in many countries of the world, but it is the French who pay "dudu" Special attention. When baby When he is born, a personal handkerchief toy is immediately placed in his pen. It is believed that the “dudu” is one for life, so parents buy several pieces at once in case of loss. From birth, the baby sucks and pulls his cloth, which helps him in subsequent adaptation periods. Without "dudu" they may not even be accepted into the garden.
Educators are sure that without it, the child can endure homesickness worse. You can often meet already grown up children dragging worn handkerchief toys everywhere, as their personal symbol of home and warmth. And sometimes replacing an unsightly old "pipe" with a new one, exactly the same, turns into a difficult task for parents.
4. Italy. Battesimo.
Italians are temperamental and expressive, but also superstitious and very honoring traditions. A special attitude in Italy to children's religious rites. One of the most important is the christening of babies. It is customary for children to be baptized in all Catholic countries, but it is the Italians who turn this event into a real holiday for all generations of the family: solemn, beautiful, memorable.
Christening in Italy is a small (and sometimes big) wedding.
The cult of the family is inherent in Italians, so all relatives are going to congratulate the baby. In many families, there is a tradition to pass on the outfit for the baptism of a newborn by inheritance. This is a relic that is kept by the older generation and is presented to the little Italian on the day of baptism. A long shirt and a bonnet solemnly adorn the hero of the celebration and then again go to wait for the family replenishment. All guests receive traditional Italian bonborieres (bags of sweets and a small souvenir) - an attribute of many holidays since ancient Rome. The rite of christening ends with a family banquet, where the newly-made Catholic receives gifts from the whole family.
One of the distinguishing features of European kindergartens is that the group goes beyond the kindergarten. IN public transport and on the streets on weekdays you can see preschoolers heading to the park , museum, zoo, to the exhibition, accompanied by educators.
It looks like this: the children walk in pairs, holding the handle, they are often dressed in bright "identification" vests or holding on to a common rope, one teacher leads the column, the second closes. Such "outings" are included in the preschool education program and are aimed at expanding the horizons of the kids. Numerous educational programs specially created by scientific and exhibition organizations for the smallest contribute to such events. Even a simple walk in the city park turns into a small learning journey: children are taught in practice about the rules of behavior for pedestrians and transport passengers, they are taught to behave in an organized and attentive manner on the streets of the city.
Every year, interest in European countries from foreigners is growing at a tremendous speed. In most cases, this attraction is of a tourist nature. To conquer impregnable mountain peaks, soak up the sun on the resort beaches, plunge into the blue abyss of the seas and oceans, see the beauty of majestic architectural structures or just relax in luxurious apartments - these are the main goals pursued by tourists from all over the world. The question involuntarily arises: “But what about acquaintance with the cultural traditions of European countries?” After all, they are the layer of culture of the peoples of Europe. Let's take a look at the most popular of them.
The origin of the traditions and customs of the peoples of Europe. European etiquette
Rules and norms of behavior have existed since ancient times, but the word "etiquette" itself appeared in France and gained its distribution throughout Europe, and then the whole world, only in the 17th century. It all started with receptions in the royal courts, which were accompanied by the distribution of so-called "labels" - cards with certain rules of conduct for guests.
On modern etiquette Western European states were greatly influenced by well-established folk traditions and customs passed down from generation to generation. These include various kinds of legends, legends, religious rites and beliefs. Communication among themselves for political, commercial or other purposes led to a mixture of cultural traditions in European countries, which, in turn, made it possible to identify the basic rules good manners peoples of Europe. Among them - a delicate attitude and respect for the customs and traditions of each country without comparison or criticism on their part, knowledge and skillful use of the titles of interlocutors, addressing by name to persons participating in a conversation with you, and others. The most popular European cultural traditions today are wedding customs and culinary arts.
European wedding traditions
Most of the customs associated with the preparation and holding of a wedding celebration are well known to us, but there are some that can be a real discovery for you.
For example, in Portugal and Hungary there is a certain rule for inviting the bride to dance. Those who want to dance with the young woman need to get a coin into one of her shoes, previously placed in the center of the wedding hall.
The custom of sprinkling newlyweds with rose petals, which is a symbol of an easy and happy life, appeared in the UK and joined the wedding culture of almost all countries of the world. Trying to make this tradition more unique, each of the countries has added its own “zest” to it. So, in Romanian wedding ceremonies, along with rose petals, there are also millet and nuts.
In the Slovak Republic, there is a tradition of exchanging gifts between future spouses. The bride gives her lover a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. The groom's answer should be silver ring, fur hat, rosary and chastity belt with three keys.
At Norwegian and Swiss weddings, a mandatory custom is the planting of trees: two spruces and one pine, respectively.
The beginning of the ceremony in Germany is accompanied by the beating of dishes by friends and relatives of the bride in her house, in the Netherlands - by a festive banquet, and in France - by the newlyweds drinking wine from goblets, symbolizing happiness and love.
In addition to the traditions directly related to the marriage procedure, great attention is paid to complementing the wedding images of future spouses. So, for English brides, it is very important to have a horseshoe or a pin on the wedding dress, which is a sign of a happy marriage, and a crown should be present on the heads of Finnish young people.
Peculiarity wedding traditions European society lies in the uniqueness of each of them, as well as popularity among modern Europeans.
European culinary traditions
Traditional European cuisine is assembled from amazing culinary recipes national dishes peoples of Europe. At the same time, each European state can boast of individual culinary masterpieces.
On the territory of Central Europe, the most popular dishes of Polish and Hungarian cuisine, the crown recipes of which are goulash, strudel, vegetable soup with dill.
Eastern European cuisine evolved under the influence of the cooking customs of nomadic peoples inhabiting this territory in old days. The most famous among the culinary dishes of Eastern Europe are borscht, dumplings, pies.
A special place in the culinary arena of Western Europe is occupied by French cuisine, which is an example to follow in many countries around the world. A feature of the culinary masterpieces of France is the use of wines and spices in almost any dish. Unlike the French, their neighbors - the Germans - prefer to eat potatoes, meat and beer.
The culinary traditions of Northern Europe are extremely diverse. The most common dishes of the cuisine of European northerners are creme brulee, chocolate fudge, duck in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.
Southern European cuisine is in many ways similar to Western European, especially French. It is also popular here to add wine to most dishes, but at the same time, it is also mandatory to serve it separately on the table before the start of the meal.
Introduction to modern European culture
In addition to wedding and culinary customs, modern European culture contains a huge variety of traditions associated with all spheres of human activity. Any foreigner who has received a European Union passport can get to know them better, join or even become an integral part of them. Romania is in the greatest demand for European citizenship. Obtaining Romanian citizenship is the fastest and cheapest way to integrate into European society today.
on the topic: Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe
Introduction
The customs of peoples is one of the most important and most constant topics of ethnographic science. Only in modern times was the view born that customs are not only an object of idle curiosity, naive surprise or indignation: they can also be the object of serious scientific study. For the first time this view was expressed by writers of the 18th century: Lafito, Montesquieu, Charles de Brosse, and others. Classical ethnographers of the evolutionary direction - Taylor, Loebcock and others - considered the customs of peoples as some classification units that have a tendency of independent development, along with elements of material culture , beliefs, etc. The English functionalists - Malinovsky, Radcliffe-Brown - saw in customs ("institutions") an inseparable constituent part of the whole which they called "culture" or "social system". Culture in the broad sense of the word is everything that has been created and is being created by mankind, from tools to household items, from habits, customs, the very way of life of people to science and art, morality and philosophy. Now the cultural layer covers almost the entire planet.
"Custom" is any established, traditional and more or less generally accepted procedure for performing any social actions, traditional rules of conduct. The term "custom" is close to the concept of "rite" ("ritual"), and in many cases these two concepts are even equivalent. But the concept of "rite" is narrower than the concept of "custom". Every ritual is a custom, but not every custom is a ritual. For example, wedding or funeral, Christmas or Shrovetide customs are established ceremonies. But there are very few in which there is nothing ritual: for example, the custom of shaving a beard, the custom of washing hands before eating, the custom of neighborly mutual assistance, the custom of single inheritance. The most interesting, but also the most difficult to study, are the customs ritual type: those that are expressed in traditional actions performed in the prescribed manner and in a certain form. As a rule, these customs-rituals have a certain symbolic meaning, that is, they serve as a "sign" of some kind of representation, some kind of social relationship. The main task of research in such cases becomes - to find the meaning that is hidden in this custom-rite. To understand the meaning of these rites and to find out their origin is the goal of ethnographic study. Folk customs are extremely diverse, and it is difficult to fit them into any system of classification. And even if we take not all customs in general, but only customs-rites, then they turn out to be very diverse and difficult to classify.
In this paper, we will consider the calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Europe in the winter. On the calendar customs of the peoples of Europe strong influence rendered by the Christian Church with its annual cycle of holidays, fasts and memorable days. Christian doctrine quickly spread throughout Europe. In the IV century. the Goths, Vandals, Lombards adopted Christianity; in the 5th century Sueves, Franks, Irish Celts; in the VI century. Scots; in the 7th century Anglo-Saxons, Alle-Manns; in the 8th century Frisians, Saxons, Danes; in the ninth century southern and part of the western Slavs, Swedes; in the X century. Eastern Slavs (Rus), Poles, Hungarians; in XI Norwegians, Icelanders; in the thirteenth century Finns. The adoption of Christianity by individual European peoples was by no means a peaceful process. And, of course, the church had a huge impact on the rites and customs of all inhabitants of European countries. But the Christian faith has never been unified. Gradually accumulating dogmatic, ritual, canonical differences, which reflected political contradictions, finally led to a formal split in the churches (1054). This split had incalculable consequences for the whole cultural history European peoples. The influence of one or another religion affected the traditions of calendar ceremonies in different ways. One of the goals of the work is to explore the genesis of folk calendar customs and rituals in Western Europe. Also reveal the ratio of the religious-magical and aesthetic (artistic, decorating, entertaining) element in calendar customs; historical transition first to second. Find out what customs have survived to this day. It should be emphasized that these rites for the most part are folk character. The ecclesiastical element was introduced into them much later and often did not change the essence of the rites.
Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe
Folk customs and rituals are an essential part of the spiritual culture of the people, reflecting their worldview in different periods of historical development. The study of them is very important in the study of the processes of integration, adaptation and mutual influence occurring between different peoples, since it is often in traditional rites that the ethnic tradition of peoples is manifested.
An example of the persistence of such a tradition is the preservation of ancient traditional ritual dishes in the festive menu of European peoples: Christmas roast goose or turkey, roast pork head or pork, porridge from various cereals, legumes, chestnuts, nuts, previously considered a symbol of abundance.
It is known that many rituals of the winter calendar cycle were associated with superstitions and prejudices characteristic of ancient farmers and cattle breeders in those remote times when the level of development of productive forces was very low. Of course, the original and most ancient basis of winter customs and rituals - the underdevelopment of agricultural labor, the dependence of ancient grain growers on the elemental forces of nature - has long ceased to exist. Of course, the primitive magical beliefs that grew up on this basis, witchcraft rites of fertility, etc., as well as belief in divination, mantles of all kinds - all this is in the past, and even in the distant past. And the higher the growth of productive forces in the country, the more intensive industrialization takes place Agriculture, the more various magical tricks and witchcraft actions aimed at ensuring a prosperous year for the farmer are forgotten.
The fragments of the old agrarian rituals, which are still preserved here and there in a surviving form, either testify to the low cultural level of their performers, in most cases representatives of the older generation, or have already completely lost their magical meaning and turned into entertainment, remaining one of the national traditions one ethnicity or another. One can find many examples of a combination in rituals of rational methods, practical actions developed empirically by farmers over many centuries and, perhaps, retaining their significance in our time, and gross superstitious signs and beliefs, the meaning of which is sometimes even difficult to grasp. Such, for example, are two kinds of signs about the weather: some signs were due to the great observation of the peasant, his good knowledge of the surrounding geographical conditions; others are born of superstition and have no practical basis. In the same way, in rituals common in some countries aimed at ensuring the harvest of fruit trees, rational actions (sprinkling - fertilizing the earth around the tree with ashes, tying it with straw) are accompanied by religious prejudices: the ash must certainly come from a burnt Christmas log, straw - from a ritual Christmas tree. sheaf, etc.
Some traditional customs and rituals developed at a time when there was a lot of cruel, unfair things in family and social life: for example, in the Christmas fortune-telling, one feature was clearly pronounced - the girl wonders about the groom, about who will "take" her, where she will be "give" . In other words, the old view of a woman as an inferior being who can be “taken” or “not taken”, can be “given away” here and there has affected. In other customs, a mockery of a girl who did not marry in the past year slips.
Until recently, in some countries, crude customs of the barbaric killing of animals and birds, once associated, apparently, with the rites of sacrifice, were preserved.
No less cruel are the customs of ritual whipping of members of their community with thorny branches until blood appears.
Customs associated with the rebirth of nature after the winter solstice, with fertility spells, were often accompanied by rough erotic games.
In the past, beliefs about special power during the festive period of various evil spirits and actions based on these beliefs to identify witches, sorcerers, etc., timed to coincide with the winter calendar cycle, did great harm. Throughout the Middle Ages, many innocent people were cruelly tortured or persecuted because of these ridiculous superstitions.
Finally, it is impossible not to mention the great harm to man and some church rituals and institutions. The observance of long, exhausting fasts before each big holiday, which is especially characteristic of Catholics, caused, for example, great harm to people's health.
Over time, the old meaning of magical actions and rituals was forgotten and they turned, as shown in the material presented above, into folk games and entertainment. Gradually become an anachronism and those rigid church forms in which the clergy tried to clothe the ancient folk festivals. But after all, in most cases, these church forms have not changed anything in essence in folk traditions in the past. The customs have remained what they were, and their connection now with one saint, now with another, turns out to be mostly accidental. Yes, and the saints themselves from the legendary martyrs for the faith turned in most cases into funny folklore characters) giving gifts to children or appearing in cheerful processions of mummers.
In a word, the presence of a religious, ecclesiastical element in the winter Christmas ritual does not change anything in the purely folk and essentially secular, entertaining character of this ritual. After all, if we talk about the actually religious, church view of folk calendar holidays, then we must remember how severely, how ruthlessly persecuted the zealots of the church, Christian fanatics - Calvinists, Presbyterians, Puritans - any hint of any holiday amusements or entertainment - be it Christmas, Easter or otherwise. Reading the Bible and listening to the Christmas sermon - that's what a believing Christian should do on the feast of the Nativity of Christ. Deviations from this rule were severely punished. The Orthodox Church also looked at the matter in the same way, severely condemning "bad demonic actions and games", "night splashing", "demonic songs and dances" and other "blasphemous deeds" during church holidays. And indeed, the very spirit of Christianity, with its disregard for earthly life and with an orientation towards the afterlife, towards the salvation of the soul, the festive Christmas ritual was and remains hostile.
In the struggle for a new democratic and socialist civilization, it is necessary to protect and support everything in folk traditions that can beautify a person's life, make it brighter, more joyful and varied. In the long process of mutual influences and mutual borrowings among European peoples, a tendency to create new features of winter rituals, characteristic of all the peoples of Europe, is increasingly manifested. These new features are formed, of course, on the basis of old folk rituals and customs of European farmers, but they first began to spread among the urban population and only gradually, in an updated form, traditions penetrate the countryside.
A striking example of one of these customs is the Christmas tree. Its spread was prepared by the ancient custom among European peoples of using and winter rituals of evergreen branches, sometimes decorated with multi-colored threads, paper, nuts, etc. In its modern form, the Christmas tree, as already reported, appeared in the middle of the 18th century. in Germany and from there gradually began to spread to other European countries, having won by now great popularity among almost all the peoples of Europe.
The custom of exchanging gifts during the winter cycle of holidays, well known to the ancient Romans, has now also become common in Europe.
In the middle of the XIX century. in England, the first colorful greeting Christmas card was printed, and today written greetings have become common in all countries; every year more and more bright art postcards are produced.
The transformation of the traditional mythological image that brings gifts to children is also interesting. Former images of saints - St. Nicholas, St. Martin, baby Jesus and others - are increasingly being replaced by one allegorical image of Santa Claus - "Santa Claus" or more often the Father of Christmas, very similar in different countries even in their appearance. The Snow Maiden or the Fairy of Winter becomes his constant companion. The tradition of masquerading brought to life the organization of mass festivities and masquerades in the cities.
Thus, having lost their religious meaning, the rites of the winter cycle were woven into the fabric of modern social life.
Winter rituals and holidays for the Scandinavian peoples begin in November and continue until February. The biggest winter holiday is Christmas, December 23rd. Many customs, rituals and beliefs are associated with it.
Despite the fact that the majority of the inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries are Protestants by religion (Lutheranism was introduced in all Scandinavian countries after the reforms of 1527-1539), there are still customs and rituals among the people, dedicated to the days of memory of Christian saints and observed by the Catholic Church .
This fact once again shows that folk rituals and holidays are essentially very little connected or not at all connected with the church images of saints and purely outwardly, formally timed to coincide with the days of memory of this or that saint. The popularity of these saints is explained only by the coincidence of church dates with significant moments of the national agricultural calendar.
The most popular of these dates are St. Martin, St. Nicholas, St. Lu-tion.1
From the day of St. Martin (November 11) summer is considered over, and winter begins. By this time, the cattle is already in the stalls, the entire crop has been harvested, and the harvesting work has been completed. St. Day Martin - the patron saint of animal husbandry - is often associated with the harvest festival. In some places in Sweden, on Martin's day, male tenants gather in every village to sum up the annual results. Everyone is seated around a long table, on which wine, beer, and snacks are placed. A bowl of wine is circled around with the wishes of a happy year and good health.
Village women celebrate this day in a different way. They have St. Martin is associated with the end of geese grazing. Geese graze all together in the pasture during the summer. In order to distinguish geese in the fall, each hostess puts her own special marks. When grazing stops in autumn, the shepherds bring the geese to the village and breed them in the yards. This often results in confusion. Therefore, one of the next days, all the women in the village gather and go from yard to yard, choosing their geese. This "journey" is called "goose trip" ("gasagang"). After inspecting the village geese, the women arrange a feast in the evening with drinks and treats. Later, the men join the women, and the general fun continues.
The holiday is also held in homes, family dinners are held from the autumn harvest and goose meat. There is a legend that St. Martin was hiding in the barn, and the goose betrayed him, so you need to wring the goose's neck and eat him.
On Martin's Day, various fortune-telling is known, the bones of the goose are trying to determine whether the winter will be harsh or mild. On this day, all sorts of symbolic actions cause goodness, prosperity. Evil spirits are driven away with whips and bells.
Feast of St. Nicholas (December 6) is considered the holiday of children. A man with a white beard dresses up as St. Nicholas, in the clothes of a bishop, he rides a horse or a donkey with gifts in a bag behind his back (with nuts, dried fruits, mittens, etc.) and with a whip. He inquires about the behavior of children, gifts them or punishes them.
In the old days in Denmark, before going to bed on Nicholas Day, children put a plate on the table or put their shoes under the pipe into which gifts were placed. Such a custom is not mentioned in Sweden, Norway and Iceland, although it is possible that it could exist in these countries.
The big holiday is the day of St. Lucia (Lucia) (December 13). The feast commemorates the bringing of light into the dark time years for Christmas. The very name Lucia comes from "lux", "lys" - light. Lucia's Day, according to folk beliefs, is the shortest in the whole year and is therefore considered the middle of the winter holidays. The origins of Lucia's feast are obscure; perhaps it originated in pre-Christian times. According to church legend in the IV century. Christian Lucia was condemned and put to death by pagans for her faith. The celebration of Lucia's day can be traced back for many centuries. There is a belief among the old people in Sweden that Lucie can be seen at dawn over the frozen lakes: she has a luminous crown on her head, and in her hands she holds a treat for the poor. In the old days, it was a family holiday for the Swedes, but nowadays it is also celebrated outside the family.
Lucia is a young girl dressed in white with a red sash and wearing a crown of twigs with candles. She visits the houses at dawn, carrying coffee and biscuits on a tray. In wealthy houses in the old days, maids often acted as Lucie, also dressed in white clothes and with a crown on their heads. Domestic animals also received treats: a cat-cream, a dog - a good bone, horses - oats, cows and sheep - hay. This day was once celebrated with great enthusiasm. No one in the village slept on Lucia's night, lights were on everywhere in the houses, and the villages at night looked like at dusk in the evening. In the families of St. Lucia is portrayed by the eldest daughter.
Currently, the feast of St. Lucy is celebrated collectively - in organizations, factories, hospitals, public places (cities and villages). Lucia - a beautiful girl - is chosen by voting. On this holiday, the streets of many Swedish cities are crowded with costumed companions of Lucia - young girls in white long clothes with candles in their hands and young men in white clothes and silver hats with cutouts in the form of stars and the moon, paper lanterns in their hands. On the day of Lucius, schools finish classes early and celebrate it with illuminations.
After the day, Lucii are taken with even greater zeal to prepare for Christmas.
The Christmas cycle conditionally covers two months from December 1 to February 1 - preparation for Christmas and celebration. The most important and solemn time of "12 days" from Christmas Eve to baptism (December 24-January 6). All work has been abandoned. On December 25 and 26, institutions and enterprises are closed throughout Scandinavia, and schools are on vacation.
Christmas candles are cast on the new moon, as it is believed that such candles shine brighter.
Christmas jul (jul) is still celebrated with great solemnity in the regions of Småland and Skåne in Sweden. Preparations for the holiday begin a month before it. Someone from the family, according to the old custom, should take care of new clothes and shoes for Christmas. On one of the days, two weeks before the holiday, fattened Christmas piglets are slaughtered, which usually takes place between two or three in the morning. The day before, the hostess prepares a well-cleaned or new cauldron of flour, into which the blood of animals should drain. When piglets are slaughtered, someone is near the cauldron and stirs the blood and flour until the mixture becomes thick and baked. This was most often performed by a woman over the age of 50 who was not pregnant, since it was believed that a pregnant woman in this case could give birth to a sick child (with epilepsy or with handicap). Young women or girls with a groom were strictly forbidden to take any part in the slaughter of cattle.
When piglets were slaughtered, the hooves and nipples were buried in the pigsty in the place where the pig lay, as it was believed that this brings good luck in breeding pigs.
The most common slaughter in Sweden takes place in the middle or end of November. For this, after summer grazing and the completion of all field work, animals are placed in the yard for fattening. Usually a cow or a bull, a couple of pigs and a few sheep are prepared for slaughter. Geese were slaughtered for Christmas earlier, this happened on St. Martin or in front of him. In each village, one of the peasants is specially engaged in such a craft.
Blood sausage blopolsan (blopolsan), which is very popular, is immediately prepared from the fresh blood of animals. No less popular food is paltar (paltar) - balls the size of two fists, made from a mixture of flour with a certain amount of fresh blood, and fried in lard. Part of the meat and pork is smoked, but a significant amount is salted and not eaten until Christmas.
After cooking meat and sausages, they start brewing. This is done most often in a special building (stegerset), located next to the housing. Beer is brewed for three to four days without interruption from morning to evening. Three types of beer are obtained: actually Christmas, thick and strong, then more liquid and, finally, Braga or kvass. When making drinks at home, a fairly significant amount of grain is consumed. Almost every household has malt, and not only for their own needs, but also for sale.
Most of the time is occupied by baking bread, which also had to be done before Christmas. Bread is baked from different types of flour. First of all, huge round sedbred breads (sodbrod) are baked from wholemeal flour, weighing 6-8 kg for daily expenses. Ovens are large, so 12-15 such loaves can be placed in them at a time. Before baking, a cross is made on each of the breads with a knitting needle, so that the troll (evil spirit) or other evil spirits do not bewitch the baking.
By Christmas they bake so much bread that it lasts until spring. Until the day of the Annunciation (Bebadelsedag) - March 25, baking is not done. In order to protect the bread from mold, it is buried in heaps of grain.
14 days before Christmas, they begin to prepare "Christmas firewood" yulved (julved), i.e. stakes and poles.
Baking was carried out in all wealthy houses, and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. The gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, candles. On Christmas Eve before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down for a festive treat. With Christmas comes the general celebration; there is not even a single poor house where this event would not be celebrated.
The smallest bread cake is always kept hidden from one Christmas to the next or even longer. It was not uncommon for an 80-90-year-old woman to keep a bread cake baked in her youth.
There was a belief that Christmas bread and beer, which had been stored for a long time, supposedly had supernatural powers; they were considered a healing agent against diseases of people and animals. A piece of Christmas bread or a sakakan flatbread in many places in Scandinavia is always stored until the start of spring sowing. Before the plow or harrow is lowered into the ground for the first time, a piece of bread or a horse cake is given. When sowing, a piece of bread also lies at the bottom of the seeder, and after the completion of spring sowing, the plowman must eat this bread and drink Christmas beer. They believed that in this case there would be a good harvest.
After the slaughter of cattle is carried out, beer is brewed and bread is baked, the cleaning of the premises begins - the ceilings and walls are washed, they are pasted over with wallpaper, the floors are rubbed, the stoves are painted, the inventory and dishes are cleaned. Pewter and silver utensils, polished to a shine, are displayed on shelves above the door to the dwelling. On Christmas Eve they decorate the Christmas tree. Before Christmas, everyone works without rest, especially women.
Christmas Eve, Christmas Eve (December 24), is called yulafton, yulaften, yuleaften (julafton, julaften, juleaften). On Christmas Eve before dinner, everyone is busy with small things. Workers tidy up all the outbuildings and chop wood, so that they do not deal with these matters until baptism (up to three kings), prepare torches, remove sheaves from bins, clean horses. Pets are given better and more satisfying food in order to "be with them in good relations". While the animals are being fed, the owner walks around the yard and arable land for the last time and looks to see if all the inventory has been removed. The usual opinion was that if a peasant forgot his agricultural implements on arable land for Christmas, then he was the last to harvest in the past year. This is how time passes until lunchtime.
The celebration of Christmas begins on Christmas Eve itself. In some areas of Scandinavia (mainly in Western and Southern Sweden), in the afternoon on Christmas Eve, in the old days, they arranged "dipping into the cauldron." It consisted in the fact that pieces of bread on a fork were dipped into meat broth, in which meat was cooked for the upcoming holiday, and eaten. Dipping into the cauldron took place with a certain solemnity and was considered as an entry into the actual holiday. This ceremony was called "doppa" (dipping). Therefore, Christmas Eve was called in some places in Sweden dopparedagen (dopparedagen) (dipping day) 12. After dipping, they washed in a bathhouse, put on festive clothes. By Christmas Eve until the middle of the XIX century. straw was spread on the floor (after the living quarters were put in order) and the table was set.
Around six o'clock in the evening they sit down at the table and help themselves. The treat is the same - on Christmas Eve, Christmas, New Year and baptism. At the evening meal on Christmas Eve, they eat Christmas ham and porridge, then fish, bread made from finely sifted flour with butter. Among the drinks on Christmas Eve, the best, strong Christmas beer takes the first place. After a meal, they are bred under cauldrons big fire in a fireplace made of thick pine wood, which gives a large julrok (Christmas smoke) smoke. At the same time, domestic animals are released to the watering hole and fumigated with Christmas smoke. After this fire, the ashes are not thrown away, but preserved, and on the second day in the morning they sprinkle domestic animals with it: supposedly this can protect them from illness, the devil and the evil eye. After the meal, a Christmas prayer is read. Then the Christmas presents are distributed. Instead of a Christmas tree, in many places there was a wooden pole decorated with red and green paper, as well as eight or ten candles. Candles are lit on Christmas Eve and they burn all Christmas night.
In Norway and Denmark, preparations for Christmas also begin long before it. Already in November, pigs and calves are slaughtered, and the meat is processed into delicacies of all kinds. Before Christmas, there is a semi-annual cleaning of the house and cleaning of dishes. Firewood is prepared in advance for two weeks, since all work is prohibited at Christmas time for two weeks. Looms and spinning wheels are removed and used again only after baptism.
Pets are given the best food with the words of a magic spell. Many rituals and customs are associated with Christmas. In Norway, they tell a legend about a negligent girl who did not feed the animals on this day. The girl was sitting by the fence and suddenly heard the words “let the one who sits at the fence go blind,” and she immediately went blind. It is believed that it was the voice of a hungry cow.
Two weeks before the holiday in Norway and Denmark, rooms are cleaned, utensils are cleaned, pies and special buns are baked, wines and various drinks are prepared. In the villages, peasants clean the barnyard, clean and feed the best hay on the eve of Christmas, domestic animals, so that "they are ready to welcome a merry Christmas." Crosses are drawn on plows and harrows and tools are removed under the sheds of yards. In Denmark, there is still a belief that a wandering shoemaker can find a thing on which a cross is not drawn and sit on it, this will bring misfortune to the house. The explanation is found in the legend that "bearing his cross" stopped to rest at the door of the shoemaker. The shoemaker drove him away, and then the "bearer of the cross" threatened the shoemaker that he would wander until his return. People say that the shoemaker has been walking around Denmark for two hundred years and looking for an unsanctified plow, and if he finds it, then the curse will end and pass from him to the owner of the plow. A well-known folk legend tells that on the night before Christmas you can hear the steps of a wandering shoemaker.
Before Christmas, festive baking and making decorations for the home ends: paper cutouts for the walls, stars for the Christmas tree, wooden toys, straw goat animals julebokar (julebockar), pigs julegrisar (julegrisar). Among the various figures - decorations, gifts - the goat is the most popular.
Christmas birds (rooster, dove), wooden or straw, are also popular. They often stand with a goat on the Christmas table. They are hung from the ceiling. These straw figurines are associated with ancient mythology: the goat is an attribute of Thor, the god of thunder, the pig is the god Frey, etc. Throughout Scandinavia, it is very customary to give gifts to relatives, friends, and acquaintances. Gifts are wrapped and sealed with red wax, rhymes or sayings about the use of the gift are embedded in them. They dress up a Christmas tree or a Christmas tree (fir, pine and juniper branches) secretly from children, decorate it with the national flag from above (in Norway and Denmark), small flags from below, and all sorts of toys.
On December 24, in the afternoon in Norway, as in Sweden, the family gathers at the hearth for "dipping in the cauldron" (doppgrytan). A cauldron with boiled meat, sausages or ham stands on the hearth. Everyone, including guests and servants, cuts off a piece white bread vertored, vertered, verored, lowers on a fork into a cauldron with meat sauce, then eats this bread with a piece of meat. They do it for happiness. They make toasts to happiness, drink mulled wine from wine, rum, spices, sometimes something else.
On December 24, on Christmas Eve, everything is ready for celebration in all the Scandinavian countries. All shops and markets are closed.
On December 25, the climax of the winter holidays comes, a time of good wishes and great joys. No matter how late they settled down on the eve of the holiday, on December 25 everyone was already on their feet early in the morning, at six o'clock.
Candles are lit in every window in the village. Ride on a sleigh with pine torches. Then the burning torches are thrown into a fire built on a high spot in the churchyard. Say the traditional holiday greeting "Godjul!". The fire is extinguished at dawn, etc.
At home, before dinner, everyone goes about their own business. The holiday on the first day is held in the family. No one goes to visit, because they believe that by doing so they bring happiness out of the house. A stranger who enters the house, however, is treated to beer.
There are almost always fish dishes on the festive table, and, above all, the Christmas cod lutfisk (lutfisk) of a peculiar preparation. The cod is first dried and then soaked to a jelly state. Baked products amaze with their pretentiousness and fantasy - figured bread, cookies in the form of figures of various animals, fourteen types of different cakes, one type for every day, and for dessert - a Christmas cake. Strong beer, punch and coffee are always present on the table. In many Scandinavian villages, especially in Norway, they dress in old national costumes, in cities - in elegant clothes. Dinner is served hot and cold. Until the beginning of the 20th century. in Norway, on Christmas Eve, someone secretly made a straw man and hid it under the table. The effigy was often dressed in men's clothing. It was called juleseen - "julesven" (Christmas guy). On Christmas Eve, food and a mug of beer were placed next to the scarecrow. This custom is still found in the mountainous regions of Norway.
After dinner, the door opens to a room with a Christmas tree, which until then is hidden from the children. The father of the family reads a prayer. Then there is a knock on the door, the “Christmas grandfather” enters - julegubbe, julemand (] julegubbe, julemand), yultomten, julenisse (jultomten, julenisse), who is portrayed by an uncle, brother or other men from the family. In appearance, the Christmas grandfather is very similar to the Russian Father Frost: he is dressed in a red hat, with a white beard, carries a bag with gifts over his shoulders, arrives in a sleigh pulled by goats of the god Thor. Children, having received gifts, thank him with a bow. After the distribution of gifts, Santa Claus dances around the Christmas tree.
After the gala dinner, dances and games begin, which continue throughout Christmas time. They dance in turn in each house. In connection with this, the very first house is consecrated in some areas of Sweden (in the Oster gotland region). In the first house, before the dances, they put on a performance. Two young girls in white clothes with beautiful shiny crowns on their heads enter the house, with refreshments on a tray. Then the next two girls, dressed in the same way, enter and bring in a bush (buske) or a small Christmas tree with burning candles. The Christmas tree is placed on the floor in the middle of the house, and all four girls form a circle around the Christmas tree and sing songs in honor of all those present. After that, the Christmas tree is put on the table and they begin to dance. Sports fans after dinner - skates, skis, sleds. On the second day of Christmas, people usually arrange theatrical performance. Christmas dance parties are the time funny jokes and pranks that suit the mummers. Most often they dress up as a goat, putting on an inside-out sheepskin, and attaching horns, wooden or real, to their heads. Sometimes a lit tow or linen sticks out in the mouth of the mask, so that sparks fly around. The mummers burst into the middle of the dancers and cause a commotion. In some villages, the same people act as Christmas mummers for several years. In addition to the "masked-goats", the so-called "Christmas ghosts" yul speken (julspoken) go from house to house on Christmas. Men wrap themselves over their clothes with a large piece of linen cloth, tighten the cord over their hips, stuff straw under the cloth to change their figure, tie a long coarse woolen tie around their neck, put on a black high hat, smear their faces with soot or dark paint, pick up a stick and in this form go home. Usually a man in disguise walks with a woman or a girl; she dresses up in a large old women's coat, and puts a wide-brimmed hat on her head. Entering the house, the mummers ask what kind of work they can do. They are assigned some business, and then they are treated to beer, wine, nuts, Christmas apples. The mummers sing songs to which you can dance. After the dancing begins, the mummers go to other houses, usually choosing the most friendly and generous hosts.
Early in the morning on the second day of the holiday, the owner inspects the yard, as it often happens that, for fun, a lot of manure, garbage and snow are thrown into the barn and barn at night, especially to those owners who were offended. If they wanted to please the good owners, then, on the contrary, they cleaned the barns and sheds and put everything in order.
On the evening of the second day, fun began in the villages, festivities called “Christmas huts” yul-stugorna (julstugorna) with dances and dances. Each guy chooses a girl for dancing for the whole evening. On Christmas days, various games are organized in which people of all ages take part. They play hide-and-seek, change shoes, thread with eyes closed thread in a needle, tell fortunes on nuts, etc. Participants in such cheerful rural festivals love to perform popular folk songs.
In the cities, December 26 is the day of parties and visits, holidays at enterprises and organizations. Holidays suit both adults and children. Hospitality these days is special. In many places it is customary for passers-by to enter the house and share a festive meal.
From this day until January 13, meetings, dances and festivities with plentiful refreshments, visiting guests continue. At these evenings, acquaintances between girls and young people often took place.
On Christmas days, artisans and other townspeople put on the best costumes, wear masks roughly made of wood - the head of an ox, the horns of a goat. Young people walk the streets with songs, give theatrical performances.
A joyful event for people of all ages is a visit to the Christmas market. In Stockholm's famous Skansen Park (open-air museum), merchants, artisans and handicraftsmen offer their specialties: Norrland sausage, herring salad, a wide variety of cheeses, handicrafts and much more. In the evenings, dances under the Christmas tree are held in Skansen. Shops with their rich showcases are trading briskly these days.
Stockholmers have a custom to visit the graves on Christmas Eve, and the grave mound is decorated with a Christmas tree with candles burning on it. The Christmas tree is also common on Danish graves.
There is a custom on the eve of the New Year to arrange processions of mummers. The mummers often carry on a stick the head of a goat with a long tow beard stuffed with hay. A julesven (Christmas boy) is also often present here.
Christmas fun was interrupted only by a solemn quiet New Year's day. Between Christmas and New Year, no work is carried out, except for the care of animals. They strive to spend the New Year as successfully as possible so that the whole year is happy. They prepare dishes that, according to legend, allegedly heal from diseases for the whole year (for example, all kinds of apple treats for stomach diseases, etc.).
The streets of the capital before the New Year and in the New Year in the lights of illuminations and the festive decoration of green garlands of fir branches. Usually, New Year's Eve in cities goes like this: the family gathers at the festive table. At midnight, the windows open, go out onto the balconies, fire from rocket launchers, burn sparklers. On New Year's Eve, in some places they arrange a masquerade, group visits, dances, snacks at home, with neighbors.
In Western Jutland, in the form of New Year's jokes, they hide the wheels from the cart in the well or throw the pitchfork onto the roof, so prudent owners remove all equipment under lock and key in advance.
At midnight before the New Year, church bells ring for the outgoing year. In cities, on New Year's Eve, masquerades are held in public places and on the streets.
New Year's Eve dinner consists of all kinds of snacks. An obligatory dish in the seaside regions of Denmark is cod with mustard.
On the New Year, January 1, they go to church in the morning, and then celebrate at home or go on a visit. Previously, the New Year was celebrated mainly at home in the seed circle. On the festive table in the New Year, the same dishes as in Christmas. On the table there are also various cold appetizers smergsbred, smergös, smerrebred, mostly fish - salmon, herring salad. The main dish in the New Year is cod, and rice pudding with a happy twist is also considered a must. There is always a roast goose on the dining table, meat, cheese, vegetables, pies, and sweets are also served. They drink a lot of beer.
On the second day of the New Year, parties, dinner parties or festive entertainment are held (in organizations, clubs, etc.).
On January 2, on the 9th day of Christmas, old men arrange a feast. At the feast, sagas about trolls and ghosts are told. This day is called gubbdagen - "the day of the old people."
This holiday has medieval traditions. Beliefs and some customs are also timed to it, although much less than for Christmas and the New Year. On this day, according to popular belief, good spirits come with wishes to children. Three-horned candelabra are lit everywhere. Students arrange festive processions with songs and paper lanterns. Folk games are held. In the cities they depict the procession of holy kings from the east; young men and boys - in white clothes and white conical hats, decorated with pompoms and astronomical signs, carry large transparent paper lamps on long poles, illuminated from the inside. In villages, boys dress up in biblical costumes and go from house to house, singing old folk songs with wishes of well-being, passed down from generation to generation.
Three Kings Day is the end of the holiday season. They begin to remove Christmas trees and green branches from houses. At night, young girls guess and try to find out their fate. According to the old custom, they move backwards and throw the boot over the left shoulder. At the same time, they ask the kings to predict fate. The one whom the girl sees in a dream after divination will become her fiancé.
January 13 - the feast of St. Knuta, the 20th day of Christmas, the official end of the holidays. St. Knut, according to the old folk saying, chases away christmas. In houses, windows and doors are opened to sweep away Christmas with a broom or other object. According to the existing custom, on this day in many areas of Scandinavia, traditional Christmas races are held along the snowy roads and lakes in a sleigh pulled by horses, with bells and merry songs. According to popular belief, the trolls (spirits) themselves arrange horse races on this day, led by the troll Kari the 13th. Feast of St. Knuta - the last day of a merry Christmas. The Christmas tree or Christmas tree is taken apart, cut down and burned in the oven.
So, Christmas ends on January 13th. It is said that "Knut leaves from Christmas". On this day, in the evening, the last Christmas ball is held, to which a dressed-up Whip comes. Christmas ends at 12 midnight between Knut and Felix Day (January 13 and 14). Seeing off Christmas is accompanied by mummers. In the region of Skåne (southern Sweden), “witches” (Felixdockan) are involved in seeing off: one of the men dresses up in women's clothes, or they make a scarecrow. Then the stuffed animal is thrown away. In the evening, mummers come, dressed in the most unrecognizable way - women in trousers, men in skirts, in masks, they change their voices so that they are not recognized. These are Christmas ghosts. Knut also walks around the yards with funny witticisms, for which he is treated. In the evening on a holiday, in the company of mummers, a Christmas goat comes.
From the day of Felix, January 14, everything comes into its usual order, spinning and all kinds of other household activities, work in sheds and stables begin.
The Finnish folk calendar, which had developed by the beginning of the Middle Ages, was basically agrarian, although it also retained more ancient elements related to hunting and fishing, which became side, but continued to be vital crafts for the Finnish peasants. The main occupation of the Finns - agriculture - not only determined the specifics of the folk calendar, but also contributed to the further persistent preservation of its most important elements over the centuries. Gradually, the church strengthened its position in the country and expanded its influence on the daily life of the people; began to come into use and the church calendar. The church calendar has changed over time not only in connection with church events, as, for example, during the period of the Reformation, but transformations took place in it under the influence of the folk calendar. Entering the life of the people, church holidays were connected with those dates and holidays that fell on this time according to national time. The days of church saints and holidays associated with the events of the Holy Scriptures turned out to be connected with traditional works agricultural annual cycle. The rituals and customs dedicated to the church holiday were often associated with pre-Christian beliefs, contained the remains of ancient magical actions, traditional sacrifices designed to ensure the economic well-being of the peasantry.
The Finns divided the year into two main periods: summer and winter. One was the time of field work, the other was the period of homework, crafts, forestry and fishing. The initial days of the countdown were the "winter day", which fell on October 14, and the "summer day" - April 14. Each of the halves of the year was in turn divided into two parts of its own, so to speak, highest point: January 14th was considered the "center of winter", and July 14th - the "middle of summer"
It is typical for the Finnish calendar that although sometimes when determining the terms of the agrarian calendar, the weeks were named according to the saints from which they began, but, as a rule, they did without it, and the reference points for working terms were the days of the folk calendar - “winter” and "summer day", "middle" of winter and summer.
October belonged to the winter period, but the beginning of winter was not the first, but October 14, the day of St. Calista. The popular beginning of winter, designated as “winter day” and “winter night” or “winter nights”, as we can see, was two weeks away from the end of the old year, the day the field work was completed, from Mikhailov’s Day to Kalist.
One of the significant church holidays that fell in October was the day of St. Brigitte (folk Finnish forms of this name - Pirjo, Pirkko, etc.) - October 7. In some parts of Finland, this saint was very popular, many churches were dedicated to her, and October 7th was a great holiday.
St. Day Brigid in the folk calendar determined the beginning of knitting a large winter seine. In Halikko, a large fair was held on this day, called Piritta (also a folk form of the name Brigid). It was mainly the exchange of grain by peasants for fish from fishermen. folk custom ritual winter calendar
October 28 was the day of Simo, i.e. St. Simon (Sntyuprava), when, as it was believed, the winter weather was finally set.
Of particular interest is the “squirrel day” that fell in October, which was in no way connected with the Christian calendar. The squirrel has been playing for a long time big role in the country's economy, its fur was one of the important export items and served as a unit of exchange, a measure of money and even grain. In this regard, squirrel hunting was regulated very early. On wooden calendars, the day of the squirrel, that is, the beginning of the hunt for it, was indicated special sign. He entered the printed calendars. The day the squirrel hunt began was not the same for the whole country, which is not surprising if we recall its length from south to north.
At the end of October-beginning of November, according to the folk calendar, an important period began, lasting ten to twelve days and called "the time of division", "the time of division". In some places, this period was counted from November 1, in others from October 28, on Martynov's day - November 10 - it ended. Many customs, prohibitions, and signs are associated with this period, which in itself speaks of its importance.
To a certain extent, this twelve-day period was a time of rest from daily work. Many everyday activities were forbidden: it was impossible to wash, spin, shear sheep, and slaughter cattle. It was possible to weave nets, which was a quiet and clean work, women could do small needlework, even take such work with them when they went to visit. In general, at this time it was customary to visit relatives and friends, men gathered in companies to drink and talk. But it was necessary to behave solidly, not noisily. In accordance with this holiday period, from November 1, a free week or two began for employees. But the prohibitions of various kinds relating to this period spoke not only of its festivity, but also of the dangers that lurked in it. At that time, it was impossible to reduce one's household in any form: nothing could be given or loaned to neighbors, it was impossible to serve any of the things to the poor (probably, the ban on slaughtering cattle was also connected with this). A violator of this prohibition could undermine the well-being of his farm next year.
The importance of the “time of division” was also emphasized by the fact that young people in many places these days were guessing in order to know their future.
The weather also mattered these days. The old people used it to predict the weather for the next year. Each day of the division time corresponded to one of the months: the first - January, the second - February, etc. In addition, if the sun was shining on these days, the year should have been sunny. The appearance of the sun promised 9 sunny days during haymaking. According to signs, if the sun peeped through even for such a period during which it was only possible to saddle (or harness) a horse, the year would be good. But if all 12 days were cloudy, then it was considered pointless to cut down the forest in the slash area: the summer would be so rainy that the trees would not dry out and they could not be burned.
A special place in this period was occupied by the day of kekri or keuri. Currently, this day is timed to coincide with the first Saturday of November, which is a festive and free day. One time official calendar set the day of kekri on November 1.
In ancient times, the year ended in September, but over time, agriculture developed, cultivated fields increased, crop size grew, new crops appeared, and harvesting, and most importantly, threshing, could not be completed by Michaelmas day. Gradually, the harvest festival moved to a later date. Together with it, the time of the beginning of the new year and the “time of division” moved inseparably, which earlier, obviously, fell on the interval between the end of the old year and the “first day of winter”.
The “partition time”, as well as the gap between the end of harvesting and the day of winter, was explained by the fact that the old lunar year, which consisted of 12 months, had a difference from the solar year, which came into use later, at 11 days. Only by adding these days to the lunar year, it was possible to start a new year. Together with the day of the new year, a period of 12 holidays was formed, which were given great symbolic significance.
The Finnish calendar is not anything exceptional in this regard: many peoples knew the “time of division” or the time of “alignment”. The Estonians marked the time of the partition at the same time as the Finns, although there is more scarce information about it. In Germany and Sweden, this period fell in the middle of winter, when old year and a new one started.
The month of November was called “marraskuu” in Finnish, which they tried to explain in various ways. Currently, they adhere to the point of view that this word is based on the concept of naked, dead, empty (earth).
November has a rich working calendar, it has big church holidays.
According to the working calendar, this month it was necessary to be engaged in the manufacture of nets, it was believed that the nets made in November were stronger and more catchy than the others. The big winter seine was supposed to be completed by St. Andrew's Day (XI 30). If they did not have time to make all the necessary net fabric, then at least part of the cells on each gear should have been tied in November. November was also considered favorable for logging.
Of the days associated with church holidays, it should be noted the day of St. Martin. It is celebrated on November 10, the day of the death of Pope Martin (655) and the birthday of Martin Luther (1483). But the customs associated with this day refer to a completely different Martin - a bishop who planted Christianity among the Gauls in the 4th century, founded the first monastery in the West and is famous for the legend that he gave half of his cloak to a beggar. In fact, his day falls on November 11th. But it was on the 10th (and not only in Finland, but also in Estonia and Ingermanland) that mummers, usually children, walked around the village, pretending to be beggars. They went from house to house, sang, collected "alms" - various food - and then ate it together in some house. But Martin's Day was not only, so to speak, a children's holiday. On this day, a ceremonial meal was supposed, meat dishes were obligatory - fresh pork, black puddings. In some localities, there was even the expression “meat Martin. They served beer at the table, heated, of course, a bathhouse, went to visit each other, settled troubles - in particular, with hired workers. Apparently, this day acquired such significance because it was the last day in the “partition period”.
In the working calendar of the Martins, the day was also a significant date: in some areas it was the time of settlement with the shepherds, in addition, on this day they finished fishing in open water and began to prepare for ice fishing. In Southwestern Finland, women had to prepare part of the linen yarn for this day: it was believed that if there was no yarn by Martin's Day, then there would be no fabric by May.
Of the subsequent church holidays, Catherine's Day, November 25, was interesting in terms of traditions and the most celebrated. The celebration of Katherine's Day was by no means ecclesiastical. Katerina was the same patroness of sheep among the Lutheran population as Anastasia was among the Orthodox. On Katherine's day, sheep were sheared, and this wool was considered the best: thicker than summer, and softer than winter shearing. Lamb was also served at the table that day.
The last day of November was St. Andrei-Antti- 30.X1. Since Antti (Andrew), according to legend, was a fisherman, he, along with St. Peter, was considered the patron saint of fishing and fishermen. And until now, throwing their nets into the water, the fishermen say: "Give, Antti, perches, Pekka (Peter) - small fish." Some fishing societies hold annual meetings on this day. It was believed that with Andrey it was going to Christmas, and there is a saying: “Antti starts Christmas, Tuomas brings him into the house.”
The last month of the modern calendar is December, which is now called youlukuu, i.e. "Christmas month".
In December, signs related to the weather begin to concern the near future. This is due to the onset of a period of frost, blizzards, when it is important to know signs when going into the forest and in general on long trips. A sign of the approaching blizzard was the crack of ice, the crack of a burning torch, so strong that it broke. Before a snowstorm, hares appeared on the edge of arable land and dug holes for lying there; birds were beating at the window.
The cry of the crows foreshadowed warming. Of particular importance for predicting the weather was Christmas (see below). 4 weeks before Christmas begins the period of Advent, or “little Christmas. In Helsinki, a Christmas tree is set up on Senate Square, and a decorated and illuminated "Christmas Street" opens. Other cities tend to keep up with the capital. The upcoming Christmas is celebrated in educational institutions, enterprises and institutions. Two weeks before Christmas, the Christmas holidays begin in schools, the semester ends in higher education institutions, and every year an increasing number of employees and workers also receive Christmas holidays. In its character, the "Little Christmas", which began to be celebrated after the First World War and which has become a tradition since the 1950s, is completely at odds with the pious and quiet church style of the Advent period.
The day of Nicholas of Myra - December 6 - was not of great importance in Finland. In any case, the Finns did not have a custom to give gifts to children on this day, as is customary in Western Europe.
In Finland, St. Lucy was never popularly celebrated; but it is interesting in that many sayings are associated with it, the meaning of which is that the longest night of the year is “after St. Lucia, on Anna's eve." But the day of St. Lucius was not the shortest, for it is December 13th. In addition, the day of St. Anna stands before him - December 9th. However, it was possible to establish that until the XVIII century. day of st. Anna among the Finns was celebrated on December 15 (then a change was made in accordance with the Swedish calendar). Thus, the expression "the night of St. Lucy, the eve of Anna" is understandable. Why is this night folk tradition, was considered the longest? The answer lies, obviously, in the fact that the cult of these saints came to northern countries in the XIV century, when the Julian calendar lagged behind the true time calculation by 11 days, that is, the day of the winter solstice fell on December 14th.
Anna's Day (Finnish forms of the name - Anni, Annikki, Anneli, etc.) was considered the beginning of preparations for the Christmas holidays. There are numerous reports that the bread intended for Christmas was set and kneaded on Anna's day, and baked at night. long night allowed to bake two servings of bread. One of the breads - "Christmas" bread "was given the shape of a human face, it was then eaten on Christmas morning. On the night when they baked bread for Christmas, it was customary to go to the neighbors to ask for" alms "in the form of pies. They were served willingly and generously - it was believed that future success depends on it, especially in agriculture and fishing.
From December 21, St. Thomas (Tuo-masa) began to prepare the room for Christmas. Sooty walls were washed and whitewashed, ceiling crowns were hung, candles were prepared, etc. On this day, a small holiday was arranged in the evening: one could taste Christmas beer, often pork legs were served at the table - a tasty dish. There was a saying: "He who does not have Tuo-mas on the day, he does not have it for Christmas." This day was unhappy for the torpari - contracts with the owners of the land were ending. Somewhere that night they were guessing. For example, in Karjala, they stuck torches into the snowdrifts, marked with the names of all the inhabitants of the house, and by burning they determined what awaited whom in the future.
Finally, on December 25, Christmas arrived. Both the holiday and its name - youlu came to Finland from Sweden. Probably, initially the borrowing had the form yukhla, which now means a holiday in general, but in Karjala this is the name of All Saints' Day, and in Pohjanmaa it is Christmas.
Among the church holidays, Christmas turned out to be very persistent and important. This was undoubtedly facilitated by the time of celebration and the old traditions behind it. In many countries of Central Europe, this was the “leveling off period” and the beginning of the new year. Christmas coincided with the winter solstice, which determined the accuracy of the date. In Sweden at this time there was a celebration of the end of harvesting and threshing of bread and the beginning of a new year. It is the old traditions, previously associated with the day of kekri, the time of the "leveling" of the solar year, etc., that explains much in the traditions of Christmas. For Christmas, such traditions as fortune-telling, predicting the weather for the whole year, magical actions to ensure the harvest and the well-being of the herd, and even the family nature of the holiday - holding it without guests - in a word, the traditional features of keuri, were transferred.
Christmas Eve did not have a special name - they simply said "Christmas Eve". On this day, they worked as on weekdays, but they tried to start work early, performed it especially carefully, and ended the working day early. Already in the afternoon the bathhouse was heated, dinner was served early, and many went to bed early so that in the morning they could go to church early.
As already mentioned, the room was prepared for the holiday in advance - and on Christmas Eve the floor was covered with straw. There could be no Christmas without a straw-covered floor. 17 This custom was common in almost all of Finland. At the same time, the custom of covering the floor in the church with straw also persisted for a very long time. Regarding who brought the straw into the dwelling and how it was to be spread out, different localities had different rules.
But the main meaning of the floor covered with straw is a symbol of the harvest and ensuring the future harvest. Before spreading the straw, they threw it in handfuls up into the ceiling. If the straw caught on the ceiling boards, which in the old days were made of chipped boards and therefore with a rough surface, this portends a good harvest. We tried to have as much straw hanging on the ceiling as possible. Apparently, the decoration of the ceiling (usually above the table) with pyramidal crowns made of straw and splinter, which were common in other European countries, also goes back to this custom.
In many places, the straw was not allowed to be tangled with feet - this could lead to the fact that the bread on the field fell.
Straw was usually left on the floor for the entire duration of the Christmas holidays, from Christmas Eve to Epiphany or Whip Day. Sometimes it was changed in a certain order - for the New Year and for baptism, and on New Year's Eve they laid barley straw, and for baptism - oatmeal, or vice versa.
Christmas decorations, along with straw crowns, included elaborate home-made wooden chandeliers for candles, wooden crosses on a stand that were placed on the table.
The Christmas tree as a Christmas tree appeared in the Finnish village very late.
The evening meal on Christmas Eve was fairly early. She gave food - usually bread and beer - to pets.
In the old days, young people used to guess on Christmas night - by the burning of the torch, by the behavior of animals, by the way the rooster pecked the grain brought into the hut, they believed that one could guess their fate; believed in prophetic dreams that night, etc.
Both Christmas Eve and Christmas were spent in the circle of their families, guests were considered undesirable, just as it was on the day of kekri. The only meeting with fellow villagers and other parishioners took place on Christmas morning in the church, the only noisy moment was the return from the church - horses were usually driven to a race: whoever was the first to get home had to be lucky all year.
In the old days, food for Christmas began to be prepared in advance. When salting pork, the best pieces of meat were put aside for Christmas, and other products were stored in advance - it was believed that food on Christmas holidays should not leave the table. Even poor peasants tried their best to comply with this rule.
The second day of Christmas was St. Stefan (Fin. Tapani), the first Christian martyr, who became the patron saint of horses in Finland. Obviously, this happened due to the coincidence in time of this saint's Day with the pre-Christian holiday dedicated to the horse. In many places in Finland, it was on this day that a foal was harnessed for the first time, a young horse was ridden for the first time, etc. Almost everywhere horse races were organized on this day. It is still remembered in Southern Finland that the Tapani day used to begin with one of the young men riding into the living quarters and sitting on the horse while it ate a bucket of bran or oats. In many places, a special “Tapani bread” was baked for this day, which was eaten before the start of the competition. In some places, Tapani bread was eaten only by men, and this had to be done in the stable.
From Tapani, various entertainments for young people, games began, and mummers appeared. The mummers went at any time from Stefan's Day to Knut.
There were two kinds of them: "goats" and "star children".
Among the mummers, called "whip goats", "Christmas goats", there were various figures and masks of animals. First of all, these were goats - people in turned-out fur coats, with horns and tails, a "Christmas crane", as well as a rider on a horse. Men dressed as women, women as men, blackened their faces with soot, etc. The mummers went from house to house, started games, played scenes; they were fed.
The second group of mummers, "star boys" or "Stefan's boys", is apparently a borrowing from medieval mysteries. This procession went with candles, one of the boys carried the Star of Bethlehem. The procession was attended by figures depicting King Herod, a soldier, the "Arapian king." The traditions of walking "star children" were preserved mainly in Häme, as well as in the vicinity of Oulu, etc.
According to old Finnish ideas, the central winter month was double. January and February were called big and small or first and second.
January was a relatively easy month for the peasant. In January, they continued to harvest wood, prepare fishing tackle, women spun and wove.
The celebration of the New Year on January 1 was adopted by the Finns in the 16th century. Prior to this, as already mentioned, the year began after Michaelmas Day, gradually moved towards the end of October, and at one time was apparently celebrated on November 1st. From the time the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1, on the eve of it and on the first day, the features characteristic of such a date passed. On the eve began to guess.
As before Christmas, the floor was covered with straw on New Year's Eve. On New Year's Day, they were guessing at it, throwing it up. If the straw caught on the poles, then this promised crops.
Everyone had to behave with dignity on New Year's Day - as he did everything on this day, so it will be throughout the year. Many signs were connected with the weather on January 1.
January 6 - baptism, which was called loppiainen, a term derived from the word "end", that is, in meaning - seeing off Christmas days. Epiphany was not a big holiday in Finland, since everything that was connected with the end of the Christmas period was transferred to Knut's day (January 7 or 13. Knut's day until 1708 fell on January 7, then was moved to 13.1. According to tradition, it was considered that Knut's day is the end of the Christmas holidays; sometimes it simply depended on the welfare of the peasant to finish them a week earlier - on January 7 or later - on the 13th.
On the day of Knuth, it was possible to start the usual work, but on this day
there were also some Christmas games - there were again mummers, "Knut's goats" or "Knut's wanderers", etc. They went from house to house to "wash barrels" - to drink up Christmas beer.
In a narrow way, we have seen that the Finnish folk calendar has stably preserved its features of the agrarian calendar over the centuries. The latter manifested itself in the fact that the year was divided into two halves according to the work - summer and winter, while spring and autumn were not particularly distinguished.
Conclusion
At the end of this work, we can say with full confidence that the Western European peoples attached great importance to holidays. Each holiday involved certain preparations for it, which could take longer than the holiday itself. And all the processes associated with the festive preparation were surrounded by many signs and superstitions that forced people to prepare for the holiday in this way and not otherwise.
In addition, the holiday, distracting people from everyday worries, family troubles, life difficulties, gave psychological relaxation, and spending time together, active communication created the illusion of equality of all people, albeit for a short time, relieved social tension in society.
Holidays, which attracted many people, also provided opportunities for boys and girls to choose a marriage partner, and joy and fun relieved the natural tension between young people.
It can also be said that all folk holidays were closely intertwined with church holidays, as a result of which they mixed and adjusted to each other.
Some ancient holidays were integrated into Western European culture modernity, and continue to exist to this day, thereby giving people a good and cheerful mood, a “holiday mood”.
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