Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russian culture. Analysis of the historical conditions for the development of Rus' during the Tatar-Mongol yoke

The most difficult test for ancient Russian culture was yoke of the Golden Horde. Many Russian cities were burned, looted, art monuments were destroyed, artists were killed or taken prisoner. The leading role in the culture of this period was played by church. The Russian people managed to realize their strength and rise to the fight for independence. The rise of national self-awareness is largely connected with the activities of one of the most revered Russian saints - Sergius of Radonezh. It was he who inspired the Moscow prince Dmitry (Donskoy) to the Battle of Kulikovo. He laid the foundation of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, many monasteries and churches. Sergius and his students considered their main task spiritual education of the people.

Old Russian cities Novgorod And Pskov didn't know the Mongolians Tatar yoke, but paid tribute to the Baskaks sent there. Artistic life continued here. Here the story “The Tale of the City of Kitezh” appeared, which became a symbol of Russia, a prototype of the earthly paradise. The revival of ancient Russian cities began in the middle of the 14th century. The need for defense consolidated Russian forces, contributed to the unification of Russian lands, the formation Russian nationality. In this process main role played Moscow. The fact is that by this time the Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Turks, Constantinople as the center of Christian Orthodoxy fell and was renamed Istanbul. The establishment of Turkish rule in the Balkans was a terrible threat to the Slavs. All this increased the importance of Muscovite Rus' as center of orthodoxy. The first defeat of the Tatars, inflicted by the regiments of Dmitry Donskoy in 1378, and then the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 were the end of slavery. The rapid unification of Russian lands begins, which ends at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries under the leadership of Moscow.

Trinity "Andrei Rublev"

Central link ancient Russian art were iconography And temple architecture. The true masterpiece of this painting is the Trinity icon by Andrei Rublev. The names of such masters of icon painting as Alimpy Pechersky and Daniil Cherny are also known. Their work is comparable to the masters of the Italian Renaissance. Stone churches are being built in Novgorod and Pskov: the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, the Church of the Assumption on Volotovsky Field, the Church of Fyodor Stratilates and others. A local school of painting has developed in Novgorod, the formation of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Feofan the Greek. Being invited to Rus', he took part in the painting of more than 40 churches. His painting style was original, unique, his icons, images of saints - Christ Pantocrator and others breathe passion, spiritual energy and internal tension. Theophanes the Greek introduced Russian masters to Byzantine art and became a huge phenomenon in artistic life Moscow. He painted churches and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, worked together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets on the paintings of the Annunciation Cathedral.

They had a certain influence on ancient Russian culture connections with the nomadic East. Russians and nomads not only fought, but also directly traded with each other. Khazars, Scythians-Sarmatians, cities of the Black Sea region, Transcaucasia and Central Asia entered into cultural contacts with Moscow Russia.

Mongolian influence on Russian culture is assessed by historians differently. So, for example, Karamzin believes that Moscow owes its greatness to the khans, and S.M. Soloviev believes that the Tatar-Mongols did not have a significant influence on the Russian internal administration. Certainly, Mongol yoke suspended cultural development countries: traditional ties with Byzantium were severed, destroyed and taken captive a large number of population, cities destroyed. But the Mongol invasion is not limited to this. Some historians (N.S. Trubetskoy) believe that the Moscow state arose thanks to the Tatar yoke. They say that the Mongol yoke brought the Russian people out of the existence of small, isolated tribal and urban principalities onto the broad road of statehood (B. Shiryaev). The Mongols, in his opinion, gave the conquered Russian lands the foundations of political culture, centralism, autocracy, and serfdom. This led to the creation of a new ethnotype, the psychology of the Russian person. But there was no direct impact of Mongolian law on Russian law. The Mongols did not create any special code for Russia. And there was no systematic control of Russia by the Mon-Holo-Tatars. The Russian princes remained in power, they paid tribute to the Horde. But the power of the princes itself underwent changes. From time to time, a baskak was appointed to one or another Russian city to supervise, mainly over the collection of tribute. However, this was not a system; the Baskaks did not have certain functions.

Of course, the Mongol yoke led to loss of democratic governance in Russia. City assemblies and people's councils ceased to exist (with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov). But when the Russian vassals received from the khan the right to collect taxes for him themselves, the competence of the Grand Duke of Russia expanded. She grew even more with Dmitry Donskoy, who became virtually a single and autonomous ruler. During the Mongol period, the great Russian prince became a stronger ruler than his predecessors. Thus, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was one of the factors formation of autocracy in Rus'.

Mongol-Tatars strengthened in Rus' the idea of ​​sovereignty. At the same time, the power of the Mongol khan was unlimited and had an absolute, despotic character. And this principle of autocracy began to take root more and more deeply in political culture Russian people. Power, standing at the center of everything, itself generates law, is located outside and above law. The king became not a legal concept, but a doctrinal concept (power from).

Russian culture borrowed such features from the Mongols military valor, like courage, endurance, and tactics of using cavalry in warfare. There are many Mongolian words preserved in the Russian language relating to money and taxation, this was associated with the collection of tribute and various taxes. The Mongols did not have a significant impact on Russian education, because they themselves did not have it. The same can be said about Russian architecture and art.

An important factor in the preservation of Russian culture in these difficult times was Orthodoxy. The Mongols were tolerant and did not touch Orthodox churches. The reasons for this lie in the paganism of the Mongols, and pagans consider all faiths to be the same. The Mongols themselves were extremely superstitious and considered shamans to be people endowed with supernatural properties. One of Genghis Khan's decrees stated that all faiths should be tolerant.

What else did the Mongols give to ancient Rus'? The principle of etiquette for diplomatic negotiations. Familiarity with the Mongolian way of conducting diplomacy greatly helped the Russian princes in relations with the eastern powers, especially with the successors of the Golden Horde. In general, the importance and significance of the Mongolian influence on Russian culture should not be exaggerated. Russian culture itself, having gone to the “steppe”, became a civilizing factor. Many Tatars eventually converted to Christianity and became prominent figures in Russian culture, for example, Karamzin, Chaadaev, Bulgakov.

Culture of Rus' during the Tatar yoke

Eastern customs spread uncontrollably in Rus' during the time of the Mongols, bringing with them new culture. The clothing changed in general: from white long Slavic shirts and long trousers they moved to golden caftans, to colored trousers, to morocco boots.

That time brought about a great change in the situation of women:

The domestic life of a Russian woman came from the East. In addition to these major features of everyday Russian life of that time, abacus, felt boots, coffee, dumplings, the uniformity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlins of Beijing and Moscow - all this is the influence of the East

Church bells, a specific Russian feature, came from Asia, and from there the Yamsk bells. Before the Mongols, churches and monasteries did not use bells, but “beat and rivet.” Foundry art was then developed in China, and bells could have come from there.

The influence of the Mongol conquest on cultural development is traditionally defined in historical works as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation occurred in Rus', expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc.

While recognizing the presence of these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view.

To understand the consequences of the beneficial influence of Mongol rule on Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongol state as public education. It owes its emergence and existence to the brute and unbridled power of a large and wild “horde”, whose leaders had the only method of controlling the conquered peoples was the cruellest terror.

If we talk about the notorious “cruelty” of the Mongols, it should be noted that among the successors of Genghis Khan on the imperial throne there were certainly enlightened and humane monarchs. According to all researchers studying the issue from primary sources, “the government of the Chingizids was useful for their subjects, and the Chingizids were educated above their age.” The founder of the empire himself, in that cruel time, saturated with human blood, managed to leave a saying that can be ranked among the best achievements of human culture: “I respect and honor all four (Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed) and I ask the one who is truly the greatest of them so that he becomes my assistant."

Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to the Far East, and the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West. In Muslim lands devastated by war, scientists and architects lived under the Mongols, if not to the Golden, then to the Silver Age, but to the 14th century. in China was a century of flowering of literature and a century of brilliance - the century of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This time can be safely called the Golden Age, especially under the enlightened Emperor Kublai, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Only after the Mongol conquest could European preachers of Christianity venture to appear in distant Asian countries. In the 13th century Papal legates appeared for the first time in China, enjoying the patronage of the Mongol monarchs. The first one was built in Beijing in 1299 Catholic Church, and began to translate the New Testament into Mongolian.

In the Volga region, the remains of houses with marble cladding, water pipes, tombstones, parts of silver objects, and Venetian glass testify to the life of Mongol-Tatar cultural relatives in the 13th-14th centuries. And relations with other peoples of the East.

The power of the Golden Horde state tradition was not exhausted in the “great century” of the Golden Horde. A major factor is the two-fold revival of the state-political tradition of the Golden Horde. The first of them can be called Timur's revival (late XIV - early XV centuries), the second - Mengli-Giveev or Crimean-Ottoman XV-XVIII centuries. Interesting information about the life and everyday life of the Golden Horde capitals. The town near the village of Selitrenogo is the old Saray, the town near Tsarev's settlement is the new Saray (founded by Uzbek).

The hydraulic irrigation structures of New Saray are remarkable. The city was crossed by canals and irrigated by ponds (water was also supplied to individual houses and workshops). One of the pool systems was located along the slope of Syrt. The fall of water was used by factories built near the dams. Remains of iron drive wheels were found. During Uzbek times, Old Saray was primarily an industrial center: the ruins of forges, a brick factory, and entire towns of ceramic workshops. Also in Novy Sarai, the remains of a mint, jewelry, driving shoemakers, tailors and other workshops were discovered. In the trading quarter, remains of goods originating from all parts of the Mongolosphere were discovered, for example, coffee, which rejects the opinion that coffee came into use only in the 17th century. Spruce logs are found in wooden structures (the nearest spruce forests are several hundred kilometers away from Sarai). In both cities there were areas consisting entirely of brick buildings. The residential buildings of the Golden Horde city were technically well equipped and comfortable: beautiful floors and an interesting heating system indicate cleanliness, warmth and comfort. In the surrounding area there were palaces surrounded by gardens. The tents of the steppe inhabitants who migrated to the city were located on the outskirts.

The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding ceremonies are composed in the so-called “five-tone” or “Indo-Chinese” scale. This range exists as the only one among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basin, among the Bashkirs, among Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indochina, it still dominates. This continuous line from the East ends at the Great Russians.

The same originality is represented by another type of art - dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in a dance - a gentleman and a lady, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. They dance alone, and when they dance as a couple, the presence of the lady is not necessary; two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in western dance. The man's movements are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, there is a noticeable tendency to keep the head still, especially in women. In purely oriental dances, the legs move on their toes, to the rhythm, and the body and arms dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of movements of the body and arms, and not in dancing with the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more of a competition in agility, flexibility and rhythm of the body.

The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of fairy tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the “Turanian” and steppe “Horde” epics.

Many Christian burials have been discovered in Novy Sarai. There are also ruins associated with an ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.

The main share of the Mongol yoke on Russia relates to the area of ​​spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed freely during the rule of the Mongols.

All Russian clergy and church people were spared from paying the heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. In the difficult times of the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity, which opposed itself to the filthiness of its conquerors and oppressors, which subsequently served as a powerful means of national unification and national-political liberation from the yoke of the “wicked Hagarians.” .

The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, which placed the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the jurisdiction of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who were constantly in need of money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and land property and could provide refuge to many people who sought its protection from princely tyranny. In general, the Orthodox clergy enjoyed honor and patronage among the Mongols. In 1270, Khan Mengu-Timur issued the following decree: “in Rus' no one will dare to disgrace churches and offend metropolitans and subordinate archimandrites, archpriests, priests, etc.” Khan Uzbek even expanded the privilege of the church: “All ranks Orthodox Church all monks are subject only to the court of the Orthodox metropolitan, not to the officials of the Horde and not to the princely court. Anyone who robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Whoever dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult a church, monastery, or chapel is subject to death without distinction, whether he is Russian or Mongolian. May the Russian clergy feel like free servants of God."

From a few historical facts one can judge the attitude of the Golden Horde towards Orthodoxy. Saint Alexander Nevsky, realizing that Russia was not able to fight the Mongols, began to serve the khan not out of fear, but out of conscience. Only in alliance with the Mongols could he protect himself from the onslaught of militant Catholicism on the Orthodox East. Otherwise, history would have to record the fact of the Russians’ transition to Latinism. In this historical role, the Golden Horde was not only the patroness, but also the defender of Russian Orthodoxy. The yoke of the Mongols - pagans and Muslims - not only did not touch the soul of the Russian people, their Orthodox faith, but even preserved it.

To characterize the attitude of the Mongols to other religions of the peoples subordinate to them, the decree of Genghis Khan, the ancestor of all the Golden Horde khans and the founder of the policy of absolute religious tolerance, is interesting. This decree was given to the head of the Taoist religious teaching, Chang Chun, spiritually called Qiu-sheng-hsien. “The Most Holy Command of King Chinggis, Command to the leaders of all places. What monasteries and houses of asceticism do have in Qiu-sheng-hsien, in them those who read books daily and pray to Heaven, let them pray for the long life of the king for many years. May they be delivered from all great and small duties, dues and taxes, monasteries and houses of monks belonging to Qiu-sheng-hsien in all places, let them be freed from duties, taxes and dues. Apart from this, whoever falsely calls himself a monk, under an illegal pretext refuses duties, will be denounced punish the authorities at their discretion and upon receipt of this Command, but do not dare to change or resist it. For which this certificate was given."

Having noted this, it can be established as a historical fact that Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of the culture of the old world.

In preparing this work, materials from the studentu website were used

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The Tatar-Mongol invasion and the struggle of Rus' for its independence in the 13th century.

Recently, two different trends have clearly emerged in Russian historical literature. The meaning of one of them is expressed in the denial of the presence of the Turkic factor in the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan before the 6th AD.

If during the period of Kievan Rus the basis of economic development was foreign trade and the exploitation of natural resources, then by the end of the 12th-13th centuries. the economy reoriented towards agricultural production within the framework of the feudal fiefdom. This had a negative impact on the level of entrepreneurial activity. Even greater damage was caused by the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted almost two and a half centuries.

Villages and cities were destroyed, including a number of large economic centers: Vladimir, Ryazan, Tver, Suzdal, Kyiv. A significant part of the working population and means of production were destroyed. The payment of tribute meant the regular withdrawal of a significant part of the gross product. The center of economic life has shifted to the northeast; which significantly changed the economy and life. Traditional foreign economic relations have sharply decreased. The most important incentives for economic activity were undermined: prosperity could only increase the tribute to the Golden Horde. The destruction (during the first period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion) of most of the large trading cities, the periodic deportations of skilled artisans to the Horde led to the decline of Russian crafts, and some of the industries were no longer revived (filigree, stone carving, etc.). Agriculture suffered significantly less trade and crafts. Its extensive development continued, and as a result, it gradually became a leading sector of the economy. It was during the Mongol period that Russia became predominantly agrarian. The center of commercial entrepreneurship remained in the north-west, where Veliky Novgorod survived the Tatar-Mongol invasion. On the one hand, those complex natural conditions that hindered the development Agriculture in these parts. The forested, swampy area, in which meadows and deciduous trees were rarely found in those days, was absolutely impassable for the equestrian Tatar hordes, who did not find enough food for their horses. The Tatars tried twice to conquer the Novgorod lands, and both times were unsuccessful. On the other hand, the Novgorodians, who had significant experience in dealing with eastern nomads, developed during the Volga trade, were able to diplomatically establish relations with the Golden Horde. Gifts to the khans and their entourage allowed Novgorod to get rid of oppression and even maintain the former freedom of trade on the Volga. Having lost practically nothing, during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke Novgorod managed to achieve the highest prosperity, remaining in fact the only major intermediary between Western and North-Eastern Europe, and partly Asia.

Thus, the center of Russian entrepreneurship during the period of the Mongol-Tatar conquest remained in Veliky Novgorod. Novgorod trade was based on the following principles: exploitation of the richest forestry industries of Northern Rus'; purchasing raw materials throughout Rus' for export to Hanseatic cities; close ties with the Hanseatic League; trade with the Volga region.

Forestry industries have become somewhat depleted compared to early period, although furs still remained the main Russian product and often replaced money: furs were used to pay fines, pay for travel and trade duties, and even make donations to monasteries and churches. Furs were used not only in foreign trade, but also in domestic markets. Fur clothing not only protected from the cold, but was also a sign of social status. Thus, the lower classes wore only goat or sheepskin furs, while the upper classes dressed in squirrel, fox, beaver, mustel, and sable fur coats. Thus, each type of fur had its own market segment, and there was a steady demand for each type in the domestic market. Of course, not only Novgorodians traded such goods, but furs were concentrated primarily in their hands through an extensive network of trading agents and associated traders. The massive demand for fur in the domestic and foreign markets led to the depletion of resources in the Novgorod lands and gave rise to the need to colonize the north of the European part of Russia. As a result, Novgorodians came to the banks of the Northern Dvina, to the Vyatka and Pechora regions, to the Urals and even to Siberia. At the same time, Novgorodians rarely engaged directly in fishing outside the Novgorod lands, limiting themselves to buying, i.e. mediation operations, which were fraught with considerable dangers. Conducting trade required significant skills in military affairs, and in the XIV-XV centuries. A layer of merchant-warriors arose, called ushkuiniki, who made trips both to the northern territories and to the Volga on river oared vessels.

Fisheries were for Novgorodians great importance, since salted and dried fish were a convenient food product during long trading trips. In other areas, meat was more widely consumed. The Novgorodians' need for salt for processing fish early led to the emergence of salt making. Salt trades were no less important than fur trades.

As a result of the conquest by the German knights in the 13th century. Baltic territories, which previously belonged to the Pomeranian and Polabian Slavs, long-standing trade ties with northern Russian cities were interrupted. However, the vacated niche was soon filled by the trade and political union of North German cities - the Great German Hanse, which was formed in the 13th century. initially around Cologne and then around Lübeck.

The Hansa actively bought not only furs, but also bread, flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather, wool, sheepskins and other raw materials. The production of these goods in the Novgorod lands was insufficient even for their own consumption, and therefore local merchants actively bought them in other areas. Since the basis of the economic prosperity of Veliky Novgorod was intermediary trade, the preservation and development of trade relations with the Russian principalities was of great importance. Grain, wax, hemp and honey were bought mainly in the Dnieper region, flax - in the upper reaches of the Volga, as well as in the Smolensk and Pskov lands, leather, wool, sheepskins - partly on the Dnieper, but mainly from the Tatars and other nomads. Trade remained predominantly barter. Novgorod merchants brought furs, salt and items of Hanseatic trade, mainly metal products and fabrics, and wine, to domestic markets. At the same time, imported goods were highly valued. Being monopolists, Novgorod merchants arbitrarily set prices.

Internal: trade remained, as before, under the auspices of the church, which continued to maintain order in trade and moderation of interest on loans.

Trade people were still not allocated to a special class. Not only professionals, but also princes, clergy, and even peasants were engaged in trade. Moreover, engaging in trade significantly increased social status: for an offense inflicted on a trading person, the fine was doubled. The merchants had experience communicating with foreigners and therefore often participated in embassies. As a rule, they also had experience in military affairs.

In internal trade, Novgorodians were forced to widely use credit. Small merchants from the Russian principalities were used by Novgorod wholesalers and as sales agents for the purchase of raw materials. In case of lack of equity capital, agents required a loan. Credit transactions were certified by rumors (witnesses) and the clergy. Violation of obligations was considered a sin, so there was practically no non-repayment of loans in domestic trade. Obligations to people of other faiths were fulfilled less strictly, and therefore relations with them were more wary. Being very interested in buying raw materials, the Hanseatic people were forced to lend, but given the danger of not repaying the loan, they increased the price of goods and used other indirect means of reducing risk. Apparently, due to frequent non-returns, soon (the charter of the German court) of the 13th century. contains a ban on both providing loans and borrowing from Russians.

Novgorodians, in turn, were also not always satisfied with the quality of Hanseatic goods: wines, beer, jam, even salt. However, the great benefits from intermediary trade made relations with the Hansa attractive to the Novgorodians. The closest ties were established with the Hanseatic city of Lübeck. The Lübeck people founded a large trading court in Novgorod, called Petershof. There was an elected representative - the alderman of the courtyard, who was essentially a consul, as well as the alderman of St. Peter (after the name of the German church in the courtyard), who was in charge of the economic part, the center of which was the church of St. Peter. The procedure for interaction between Hanseatic and Novgorod merchants was strictly regulated by agreements, with the main Hanseatic office in Novgorod serving as an intermediary. Hanseatic guests were divided into summer guests, who arrived by sea, and winter guests, who arrived by land. In 1344, fearing the strengthening of Novgorod's ties with German cities and possible competition, the Lübeck Senate decided to stop overland trade. Winter guests in Novgorod it was gone.

Novgorodians were supposed to meet summer guests on Kotlin Island at the mouth of the Neva. A special bailiff and pilots were sent there, and they led the Hanseatic ships up the Neva and Lake Ladoga.

The charter of the Hanseatic trading court, which regulated the relationship of the Hansa with Novgorod, was a set of acts called skra. The skra was first compiled at the beginning of the 13th century; the second time at the end of the 13th century; in the third - in the middle of the 14th century. In addition, the Hanseatic people were guided by a charter in Latin (the so-called Latin charter), which was a kind of standard of Lübeck law, on the basis of which representatives of the Hanseatic League drew up agreements with one or another state. Naturally, the agreements drawn up on the basis of the Latin charter resolved all issues in favor of the Hanseatic people, with which Novgorod could not agree. The Hansa's privileges in Novgorod were fewer than in Sweden, Denmark or England. This was explained by the fact that the government of Novgorod did not have loan obligations to the Hansa, like the kings of England and Norway, on the one hand; on the other hand, the benefit of Novgorod trade for the Hansa consisted precisely in mediation with the East, which other countries did not provide.

At the same time, relations with the Hansa were legally formalized in accordance with the acts of the Skry and numerous agreements approved by the Novgorod government. At the same time, the Hanseatic. had significant privileges: they had the right not to allow Russians into their courtyard, loans were issued only with the consent of the main Hanseatic office and the Novgorod authorities. The Hansa leadership largely regulated the activities of its merchants. To keep prices high, the volume of imports of goods and money was limited. Thus, the Hanseatic people were allowed to import money in the amount of no more than 1 thousand marks, so that there would be no temptation to inflate prices when purchasing Novgorod goods, even if it seemed profitable. In its turn. Novgorod allowed German merchants only wholesale trade, and only as an exception, retail trade was allowed for teenagers on a small scale (for training purposes).

The methods of trade chosen were very simple: goods were bought from Novgorodians locally at higher prices than overseas, i.e. used a completely modern method of price competition. Thus, two goals were achieved, the first was to ruin the Gothic and Pomeranian trade, the second was to wean the Novgorodians from navigation, building ships, and sailing independently to foreign cities. Gradually these goals were achieved.

The monopoly of the Hansa and the restriction of independent trade in the West prompted the Novgorodians to concentrate their efforts in the East. Despite the Tatar-Mongol invasion, already in 1265 Novgorod merchants traded widely on the Volga and even had permanent clerks and permanent shops in the capital of the Golden Horde - Capae. Furs, which were in great demand there, were still imported into the Horde, as well as European goods: lead, tin, linens, cloth, metalwork, walrus ivory. From the Horde they brought bread, steppe and Asian goods: spices, dried fruits, flowers, medicinal herbs (aloe, camphor), silk and satin fabrics, gems, jewelry, pearls, beads.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, other Western Russian lands conducted foreign trade less actively. Smolensk, Vitebsk and Polotsk lands traded mainly along the Western Dvina. IN mid-XII V. Bremen ships that accidentally found themselves at the mouth of the Dvina became convinced that profitable trade could be conducted there, and founded the trading posts of Ukskul and Dalen. Through these trading posts, Dvina trade fell into the hands of the Hanseatic people. Salt, malt, herring, wine, beer, silk, linen, etc. came from Riga to the Russian lands. By the 15th century. Even Moscow joined this trade, using mainly two ways to promote goods: the first route: Moscow - Smolensk - Grodno - Augustovo - Lik - Wildminnen - Koenigsberg; the second route: Moscow - Pskov - Riga - Curonian Lagoon - Memel (meaning the Neman River) - Schaaken - Koenigsberg.

A significant role in the economic development of Rus' was played by the transfer of the center of economic and political life from the southern regions to the northeast - into the interfluve of the Oka and Volga (the land of the Vyatichi). New shopping centers (Moscow, Kostroma, Ryazan, Tver) arose and grew rapidly in the 11th-12th centuries. They were located on profitable trade routes and were relatively less subject to destruction. As a result of the decline and plunder of the southern lands, it was to the northeast that refugees flowed in a stream, finding inhabited land there. Local princes showed interest in receiving and settling migrants. This favored the further colonization of the northeast, and then the north, the population increased, arable land expanded, and crafts developed. Subsequently, these lands became the stronghold of the new Russian state and the center of the fight against the Golden Horde.

Before the fall of Veliky Novgorod, Moscow could not become the center foreign trade Rus', but already from the 14th century. it was a significant center of internal trade. According to the testimony of foreigners, Muscovites had an extraordinary penchant for small trade; almost every resident of Moscow traded in something. The markets of Moscow were extremely crowded and lively. Connections with the East gave rise to a certain penchant for oriental luxury; Moscow became a major consumer of Asian goods.

The trading rules of Muscovites were in many ways similar to the trading rules of Novgorodians, but it was believed that Moscow merchants were more conscientious and less selfish. Muscovites showed interest in fishing and craft activities, striving to use foreign experience, especially Asian experience. This was the key to the future commercial prosperity of Moscow, which relied not only on trade, but also on production activities. At the same time, craft production developed a work culture, and, accordingly, a general culture.

After the establishment of Peaceful relations with the Tatars in the south, the Don Road acquired great importance. So Muscovite Rus' established trade relations with the Italians who traded on the Taninsky route. The goods were sent to the city of Dankov on the Don and further along the Don to Azov, some even ended up in Kafa (Feodosia). The Don Road played an important role in Moscow's trade with Crimean Tatars. South Tatar trade was concentrated in the city of Surozh and was of serious importance for Moscow. Guests from Surozh enjoyed significant privileges in Moscow. The Don trade flourished in the 15th century, but it did not last long. The fall, apparently, was connected, firstly, with the increasing frequency of robbery attacks on the Don by Ryazan and Azov Cossacks; secondly, with the transfer of centers of Italian trade with Asia in connection with the opening of new trade routes by Europeans. The Don route continued to be used by the Nogais, who delivered mainly horses to Moscow. The Nogai trade was important for Moscow, connecting Rus' with the peoples of the Caucasus and even with Persia. Trade along the Northern Dvina and in the northeast had not yet received significant development and during the period under review was of a purely local nature. The main routes of communication were still rivers. The shortage of stone was the reason for the lack of paved roads such as those in Western Europe. Overland freight transportation was only possible in winter along frozen rivers and in the steppes. Moreover, additional difficulties arose due to the lack of horses. Trade was also complicated by the fact that, when crossing desert territories, merchants could always be attacked by bandits or nomads. We should not forget that the period under review is a time of unrest and civil strife. All these factors significantly hampered the development of trade relations and reduced entrepreneurial activity.

With the exception of the Novgorod and northern lands, in all Russian lands the main source of prosperity was agriculture. Resettlement to the Upper Volga region from the more fertile and warm Dnieper region required new approaches to organizing the economy and life, and left its mark on the nature of labor and trade. Rural settlements and settlements became smaller than in Kievan Rus, where villages were, as a rule, large. It was necessary to conquer islands from nature for agricultural cultivation. Since the forests in the north were denser, it was necessary to return to the slash-and-shift farming system in a more complex form than before. The abundance of swamps made it even more difficult to find suitable sites. The loamy soil required fertilizers, and the peasant was forced to burn the forest in order to short term increase soil fertility, and then went in search of a new place. This led to a gradual movement to the northeast, away from the raids of nomads and the exactions of the Golden Horde.

Let us note that colonization proceeded mainly peacefully: in the order not of conquest, but of settlement of free territories, on which islands of habitation of the Chuds, the people of the Finno-Ugric group, were only rarely found.

At the same time, the processes of securing land ownership for service people intensified. If in Kievan Rus the service of the prince was rewarded through a system of feeding, and by the 12th century. cash salary (due to the fact that foreign trade provided significant funds), then during the period of appanage principalities, these items of income became extremely unreliable due to the impoverishment of the economy of both princes and the population. The search for more stable sources of income led to the development of land tenure. There were incentives to stop the migration of the population, make it more settled and consolidated on the land.

Low soil fertility forced the search for additional sources of life support. Forests and rivers provided raw materials that could be processed during the long autumn-winter period. Thus, conditions have long been created for the development of local rural crafts, which later became known as handicrafts. Although the decline and stagnation in the development of urban crafts and trade gradually pushed agriculture, which continued to develop, into the main branch of the Russian economy, the enterprising population mastered new types of activities, such as tar smoking, salt making, ironwork, etc. At the same time, hunting and hunting, which had already become traditional, were not forgotten. beekeeping.

Constant movement, new living conditions, variability and unpredictability of nature have given rise to new features of the nature of work: on the one hand, observation and caution, necessary in unfamiliar conditions, and on the other, a willingness to take risks and play luck, which is usually called " hope for the Russian maybe." The instability of the external environment made the concept of labor discipline relative, but it fostered work ingenuity and endurance, unpretentiousness and patience. These newly acquired in the XIII-XV centuries. qualities of the Russian character are to a certain extent found to this day in Russian economic culture.

A significant increase in yield was greatly hampered by the shortage of horses and livestock, which was observed almost everywhere in the Russian lands. Only after 1380, when the pressure of the Mongol-Tatar yoke diminished, did crafts begin to revive.

Mills appeared only in the 14th century; before that, grain was ground on hand millstones. Vegetable growing and horticulture developed, but had a purely consumer value. Fisheries also developed rapidly and widely. Ownership of waters and fisheries was combined with the right to land ownership.

In the ancient Russian state there is a single monetary system was absent, although by the end of the period under review there was more coined money in circulation, since from the 14th century. coinage resumed. In the Principality of Moscow, Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy began minting the Tatar silver coin - dengu, then other principalities joined the process. The dominant monetary unit in the Russian principalities was the silver ruble, obtained from a silver stick chopped into small pieces and flattened. The coins were irregular in shape, weighing in most cases about 0.25 pounds of silver, but sometimes significantly less. Therefore, when concluding transactions, money was necessarily weighed. A ruble contained 100 money, 6 money were equal to an altyn, and one money was equal to 4 half rubles. Foreign coins were used in circulation, which were accepted by weight at the rate of 0.25 pounds of silver per ruble; gold was valued at 12 times more expensive.

The large number of principalities gave rise to many trade duties. The main type of duties was washed, i.e. payment from a cart or boat for passage to a certain place, a kind of customs duty. In addition, for trade in churches, and this was commonplace, a fee was charged for the right to trade - tithe (10% of the value of the goods). The tax collectors were called mytniks, and the tithe was collected by elected representatives from among the merchants - foremen. Myto gathered in different places several times and was not large. The right to collect toll belonged to the princes, but they often transferred or donated this right to the church and even to private individuals. The size of the moat could vary greatly. In addition to customs and tithes, during the time of the Tatar-Mongols, a tax was levied on capital - tamga. The size of the tamga also varied, but, as a rule, it amounted to 7 money per ruble from the sales volume. For evading payment of customs, a penalty was collected, called “promyt”, for evading payment of tamga - “protamozhe”.

A number of duties were levied not for the treasury, but for the improvement of trade itself: for the creation of warehouses and scales; for payment and maintenance of guards at warehouses; for branding services, etc. Such duties were usually calculated based on the actual volume of the goods, but partly also on the cost.

Duties were divided into darazh and customs. The first were paid at the outposts, while tamga was not collected; customs - directly in cities along with tamga. Darazh duties were taken from transit goods, customs duties only when the goods entered the market.

Only the clergy were exempt from paying duties; other traders, regardless of class, were obliged to pay.

The duty system was extremely complex and burdened not so much with the size of the fee, but with the variety of types and sizes. Merchants could never plan the amount of taxes in advance and therefore inflated the price in order to remain profitable in any case.

In foreign trade, things were simpler. Foreigners did not impose duties on Russian goods at all due to their high profitability, agreeing to pay export duties on Russian goods. The Hansa, which itself paid import duties, did not impose duties on Russian goods. Duties on the Dvina, Don and Volga were not levied on either imported or exported goods. The Tatars were content with gifts from Russian merchants and did not collect any duties.

Foreigners in Russian lands paid some special taxes. Foreigners paid all duties without complaint due to the extreme profitability of Russian trade. High profits were ensured due to the difference in prices between Russia and Europe, which arose as a result of the artificial isolation of Rus' created by the Hansa.

Economic and social upheavals of the 13th century. trade and crafts fell into decline for a long time, but gradually life improved, which was greatly facilitated by the preserved trade ties with the northern Russian lands. In the Russian Volga region by the 14th century. important shopping center became Nizhny Novgorod, where the Tatars actively traded.

The inability to clearly predict the results of economic activity has created a tendency to analyze the past rather than to set goals and determine ways to achieve them.

Gradual recovery commodity production, the rise of great principalities and cities was created in the second half of the 14th century. conditions for the resumption of Russian coinage.

Thus, during the period Tatar-Mongol yoke and feudal fragmentation, entrepreneurial activity did not freeze, but continued to develop, adapting to new conditions. The movement of the economic center to the north-west stimulated the interaction of disparate Russian lands, and also made it possible to create a system of relationships with Asian partners. Maintaining a foreign trade center with Western Europe in Veliky Novgorod and Pskov also contributed to the preservation and development of the entrepreneurial spirit, although trade there was limited mainly to mediation.

The primary concern of the church rulers was the restoration and increase of the material property of the church.

This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the Mongol-Tatar conquerors endowed the church in Rus', as well as everywhere in the countries they conquered, with great privileges. The church was exempt from paying tribute to the Horde. The possessions of the church became inviolable. The conquerors understood the power of church influence and, not without reason, hoped to receive their ally in her person. The privileged position of the church was one of the most important reasons why the church in the 14th - 15th centuries, especially in North-Eastern Rus', became the largest feudal landowner. The acquisitiveness of the church has always been justified by “divine” interests. In the acts that assigned land ownership to the church, it was usually written that the land did not belong to the monastery itself, but to the “Most Pure Mother of God,” “Holy Trinity,” etc. Letter of grant from the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg Ivanovich to the Olgov Monastery in the second half of the 14th century. was richly decorated with images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, apostles, and saints; this expressed the sacredness of monastic ownership of land. The lands of monasteries, metropolitan houses, episcopal sees, and cathedral churches grew in different ways. Princely grants played a significant role in the growth of church land ownership, but it should be borne in mind that in many cases princely charters only formalized the possessions of clergymen on peasant lands they had already seized.

The formation of the Russian people is associated with the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the creation of a centralized Russian state around Moscow in the 14th-15th centuries. This state included the northern and north-eastern ancient Russian lands, where, in addition to the descendants of the Slavs - the Vyatichi, Krivichi and Slovenes, there were many immigrants from other regions. In the 14th-15th centuries. these lands began to be called Russia in the 16th century. - Russia. Neighbors called the country Muscovy. The names "Great Rus'" as applied to lands inhabited by Russians, " Little Rus'" - to the Ukrainian, "White Russia" - to the Belarusian, appeared in the 15th century. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, along with the ancient name, the Russians were sometimes called Great Russians. The colonization of the northern lands by the Slavs (the Baltics, Zavolochye), which began in ancient times, Verkh The Volga and Kama region continued in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 16th-17th centuries the Russian population appeared in the Middle and Lower Volga region and in Siberia.The Russians here came into close contact with other peoples, exerted economic and cultural influence and themselves perceived the best achievements of their economy and culture.

Sergeeva Olga Evgenievna

3rd year student, Department of Museum Studies, Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University named after. I.N. Ulyanov", Ulyanovsk

Shinkarova Natalya Vladimirovna

scientific supervisor, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Museum Studies, Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University named after. I.N. Ulyanov", Ulyanovsk

Introduction

This work is devoted to the study of the influence of the culture of the Golden Horde on the culture of Ancient Rus'.

Many scientists of the 19th-20th centuries, such as N.M., studied the History of the Golden Horde. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, P.N. Savitsky, A.N. Nasonov and others. At the same time, the topic cultural heritage The Tatar-Mongol state was practically left without attention.

Relevance of the work : due to the multinationality of our country and culture, the undiminished severity national question, problems of tolerance, as well as the revival of religions - Islam and Christianity in Russia, after the atheism of the Soviet period, there is a need to study two cultures. In modern social thought, the understanding is becoming increasingly acute that, having lived side by side for hundreds of years, our cultures (the culture of the ancestors of the Tatar-Mongols and the culture of the Slavs), although they remained very different, still had mutual influences on each other. In particular, this work examines the influence of the Tatar-Mongols on the culture of Ancient Rus'.

§ 1. On the issue of studying the history of the Golden Horde. (Ulus Jochi)

The lands of the Golden Horde included: the lands of southeastern Europe from the Dnieper to the east, including the Crimea and Bulgars, the Middle and Lower Volga region, Southern Urals, Northern Caucasus to Derbend, Northern Khorezm, Western Siberia. City Barn(“palace”), located in the lower reaches of the Volga, was the capital of the Golden Horde.

Ancient Rus' was not part of the Golden Horde, but fell into vassalage - the population of the state paid tribute and obeyed the orders of the khans.

In the middle of the 14th century. The Golden Horde was one of the largest states in Europe and Asia. Historically, this colossal half-state, half-nomad did not last long - about 200 years. The simplest thing was government structure Golden Horde. The unity of the Horde was based on a system of brutal terror.

The fall of the Golden Horde was predetermined by the following features: a huge territory inhabited by peoples with different cultures, religions and customs, separatist tendencies and endless unrest (for example, in 1361, six khans replaced the Golden Horde throne, and after 1362 the Golden Horde actually disintegrated into two parts, the border of which was the Volga), by the ferocious campaign of Tamerlane in 1395, Battle of Kulikovo and etc.

§ 2. Manifestations of the influence of the Golden Horde in various areas of modern Russian culture.

The negative consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion are known to everyone, so in this work we will not dwell on this issue. Let’s move on immediately to the positive consequences of the influence of the Golden Horde culture.

2.1. Elements of Russian everyday culture, formed under the influence of the Golden Horde.

For more than 200 years, the Mongol yoke brought transformations to all spheres of life of Russian society. Bringing its changes to everyday life, clothing, decorations, the construction sector and the sphere of trade relations. In the whole culture as a whole.

Clothing has changed: long white Slavic shirts and long trousers have been replaced golden caftans, colored bloomers And Morocco boots. Women's jewelry such as beads, beads, shells, etc. came into use.

They brought into Russian culture abacus, which the West still does not know, felt boots, dumplings, coffee, the identity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlins of Beijing (Khan-Balyk) and Moscow and other cities - all this is the influence of the East.

Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to the Far East, and the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West.

The influence of the East on Russian culture is clearly reflected in dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in a dance - a lady and a gentleman, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. The man's movements are given room for improvisation. Similar to oriental dances, Russian dance is more of a competition in agility, flexibility and rhythm of the body.

Having noted all of the above, it can be established as a historical fact that Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to some extent to the rise of the culture of Rus'.

2.2. Words that came from the Golden Horde

Living in the neighborhood and the constant interaction of Russians with the Tatar-Mongols could not but affect the language. It, like other areas of life, has been affected by significant changes. Under the influence of the Golden Horde, many Turkic words came into the Russian language.

About the fifth or sixth part vocabulary Turkic origin. They have long become an integral part of the Russian language, and are not regarded by us as borrowed.

Many Mongolian words have been preserved that relate to the state (Cossack, guard, label) and economic (treasury, tamga (where customs comes from), goods) structure. Other borrowings relate to such areas as construction (tin, brick, shack), jewelry (turquoise, pearls, earrings), vegetable garden (watermelon, rhubarb), fabrics (calico, felt, calico, braid), clothing and footwear (shoe, caftan , sash, veil, stocking, pants). Some other borrowings from this period: badger, damask steel, pencil, dagger, target, elephant, cockroach, prison.

Watermelon(borrowed through the Kipch. χarbuz, Tur., Crimean-Tat. Karpuz, from Persian χarbūza, χarbuza - melon) - large, round, juicy, sweet fruit garden plant from the pumpkin family.

Brick(borrowed from Turkic: Wed. Turk. kirpiǯ, Tat. kirpič “brick”, Azeri. Kärpχič) - fake diamond, made in the form of bars from baked clay and used for buildings.

Cockroach(Turkic taraqan) - An orthoptera omnivorous insect that causes harm in the household.

Many of these words are so familiar and familiar that one cannot even think

that they are not of Slavic origin. Nevertheless, they have long come into use and are not considered foreign.

2.3. Proverbs and sayings about the time of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The long period of interaction between Rus' and the Golden Horde could not help but leave its mark on the folklore of the Russian people. Of the foreigners, the most significant block of proverbs is dedicated to the Tatars, which Russian people associate with the Mongol-Tatar invasion and subsequent yoke. In proverbs and sayings, people complain about the hardships of the Mongol yoke.

The following work was used as the main source: Proverbs of the Russian people. Collection of V. Dahl in two volumes. - M. Fiction. 1984.

“Strike a flash, the Tatar is coming” (Raise the alarm, worry, excite).

“This is pure Tatarism” (Memories of the Tatar power; violence, tyranny).

“It’s too early for the Tatars to go to Rus'”

“Only the Tatars take it forcefully”

“I wouldn’t wish it on an evil Tatar” (So bad).

“Tatar honor is more evil than evil” (In the sense that the price of the enemy’s mercy is too great, exorbitant for a noble, decent person)

“An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar” (Usually said with annoyance about a person who came to visit without an invitation or at the wrong time; usually behind his back)

“Angrier than the evil Tatar” (Very evil)

“They caused us a lot of trouble - the Crimean Khan and the Pope”

“Elders are also revered in the Horde”

“Do not teach a white swan to swim or a boyar’s son to fight the Tatars”

“Empty, as if Mamai had passed” (Option: It’s as if Mamai fought here)

“The Real Mama’s Massacre”

“The sword is sharp, but there is no one to flog: the Tatars are in Crimea, and the Pope is in Lithuania”

“The time has passed for the Tatars (enemies) to go to Rus'”

“And the Tatars take the sitting one” (Dishonesty)

2.4. Surnames that came from the Golden Horde

A fair portion of Russians noble families (near 15%.) considered their founders to come from the Golden Horde. Most of them fled under the protection of the Moscow sovereign during the Great Troubles (Great Zamyatnya) in the Golden Horde, which lasted from 1359 to 1380.

The influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. People from this environment even became sovereigns of all Rus'. For example, the king Ivan groznyj was a Tatar through his mother, a baptized Tatar Elena Glinskaya, and he used this circumstance during the conquest of Kazan, in the struggle for the Kazan throne.

The problem of the origin of Tatar surnames has been addressed by many researchers, among whom two scientists have been most complete and detailed: the historian S.B. Veselovsky in his book “Onomastics. Old Russian names, nicknames and surnames” and N.A. Baskakov in the book “Russian surnames of Turkic origin.” Their works and archival documents were used at the Lomonosov Moscow State University Research Center; I did not use the full list of the Research Center in my work.

The most famous surnames of Russian history who came out of the Golden Horde:

1. BUNINS(approx. Russian writer, poet - Bunin Ivan Alekseevich) From Bunin Prokuda Mikhailovich (died in 1595), whose grandfather, who came from the Horde to the Ryazan princes, received lands in the Ryazhsky district

2. KARAMZINS(approx. writer, poet, historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin) The official genealogy notes the origin of the surname from the Tatar Murza named Kara Murza. The etymology of the nickname of the surname Karamza - Karamurza is quite transparent: kara “black”, murza ~ mirza “lord, prince”.

3. RACHMANINOVS (approx. Russian composer Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninov) From Rakhman (from the Arab-Muslim Rakhman “merciful”) from the Horde.

4. SCRYABINS(approx. Russian composer and pianist - Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin) From Sokur Bey of the Horde. The etymology of Sokur Bey is transparent Turkic - “blind bey”.

5. TURGENEVS(approx. Russian writer Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev) From Murza Turgen Lev (Arslan), who came out from the Horde to Great Britain around 1440. book Vasily Ivanovich. The surname Turgenev has a completely obvious Turkic-Mongolian basis - the qualitative adjective turgen Mongolian. “quick”, “quick”, “hasty”, “hot-tempered”.

6. LANGUAGES(approx. famous poet, friend of Pushkin Nikolai Mikhailovich Yazykov) From Yengulai Yazyk from the Golden Horde. The time of publication, obviously, should be attributed to the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, since in the XV century the Yazykovs, as Russian nobles, were already well known

And many other scientists, military men, and writers were from families whose founders once came from the Golden Horde.

Conclusion

In the course of the research, we were able to come to the following conclusions:

For more than 200 years, the Mongol yoke has brought changes to all spheres of life of Russian society - socio-economic, political, cultural. The transformations affected Russian national clothing, jewelry, construction and trade relations.

In general, the process of traditions of the Kyiv state was interrupted. But despite all the tragedy, the era of the Mongol conquests was not simple and straightforward. Scientists have not come to the same opinion, since each phenomenon has both pros and cons. Therefore, an absolutely negative attitude towards the Mongol conquest and everything connected with it, I think, is not entirely justified. To some extent, Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of Russian culture.

The invasion of the Golden Horde brought many troubles. Cities were destroyed, the population died from hunger, fires and arrows. Many crafts disappeared, the technology of some of them was lost forever. Many ancient cultural monuments were destroyed. But the country, by historical standards, recovered quickly. And in place of the old culture, a new one arose, updated and supplemented by influxes of eastern cultures.

The language was updated, as history will show, with current words. Many of which do not seem borrowed now.

The Russian nobility greatly expanded during the reign of the Tatar-Mongols. About 15% of Russian noble families considered their founders to come from the Golden Horde. Their influence on Russian history is difficult to overestimate. People from that environment included famous scientists, musicians, writers, statesmen and military leaders, etc. It is impossible to imagine Russia without them.

To summarize this work, it should be emphasized once again that the study of this topic cannot be one-sided, and the assessment of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russian culture cannot be unambiguous.

Bibliography:

1. Baskakov N.A. Russian surnames of Turkic origin. - M.: Nauka, 1980. - 279 p.
2. Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. In 3 books. - Book I: History of Russia from ancient times to late XVII century. - M.: ACT, 2001. - 325 s.
3. Dal V.I. Proverbs of the Russian people. In 2 volumes - M. Fiction. 1984. - 196 p.
4. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language: In 4 volumes. T. 1 / Ed. D.N. Ushakova. Reprint edition. - M., 2000. - 424 p.
5. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language: In 4 volumes. T. 3 / Ed. D.N. Ushakova. Reprint edition. - M., 2000. - 432 p.
6. Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes: Transl. with him. HE. Trubachev. - 4th ed., stereotype. - M.: AST, 2004. - T. 2. - 671 p.
7. Erenzhen Khara-Davan. Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy. 2nd ed. - Elista: Kalm. book publishing house, 1991.

Now it will be useful to find out information about the level material culture Mongol-Tatars, who contradict the version of the official history about “the conquest of the civilized world by nomads, whose goal was exclusively to plunder peaceful settled peoples and expand pastures at the expense of their lands.”

Official historians, for example, claim that the Mongol-Tatars early XIII centuries there was no “iron for spears and sabers”, due to the fact that their production was represented exclusively by “low-productive cattle breeding”.

We agree that production among the Mongol-Tatars was also represented by cattle breeding, but it was by no means “low-productive”, since back in the 10th century, the Tatars “traded cows, rams, camels and felts with the Khitans.” But one thing does not at all exclude the other: the occupation of some representatives of a certain people in cattle breeding, even nomadic, does not in any way exclude the fact that other representatives of the same people can engage in agriculture, crafts, and trade, taking into account the already known area of ​​settlement of the medieval Tatars before the “era” Mongols."

There are facts from ancient Chinese chronicles that in the 11th century the Tatars “gained access to iron and copper and made weapons for themselves.” Also, the Arab Ibn al-Athir reports (1218-1219) that “the Tatars make the weapons they need with their own hands,” in sufficient quantity, presumably, for their large army and of appropriate quality.

In particular, the Tatars “with their own hands” made, as follows from the notes of Men-hun, compiled simultaneously with the notes of Ibn al-Athir, “light and thin sabers,” which were their main weapons. The lightness and subtlety of edged weapons undoubtedly testifies to its highest quality, primarily the steel from which these curved sabers were forged, as well as the high skill of their manufacturers.

It seems that such weapons cannot be manufactured in the conditions of nomadic camps. It is well known that metallurgy already at that time required quite serious stationary equipment, which could not be transported with oneself in conditions of a nomadic lifestyle, or quickly built during short shepherd stops. They also required deposits of iron ore accessible to a medieval blacksmith, as well as places to extract fuel, and nomads encountered them, presumably, not often, and they would have to linger near these deposits and sources of fuel for a long time, so, as we can safely say, that the nomadic image life and existing level the development of metallurgy could hardly be combined.

Therefore, as one can reasonably assume, the early medieval Tatars already had not only “permanent winter huts”, and long before the era of Genghis Khan.

Also, the Mongol-Tatars, more precisely, the medieval Tatars, whom official historians still tend to consider exclusively nomads, for some reason had a desire to build cities, and, in the full sense of the word, and not only to build, but also to live in them and other "permanent habitations". In addition, the Tatars had the ability and desire to engage in crafts, trade and to “patronize agriculture.” For example, long before the start of the war with Khorezmshah in 1218, in the “land of the black Chinese,” that is, in Dzungaria, as Rubruk writes, “the Tatars built the city of Omyl.”

“I tu zhi” (“Maps and descriptions of the entire empire”) and other Chinese sources of the Qing period note that Genghis Khan built the city of Karakorum in 1220 and made it his capital." Note that Karakorum "existed in the 8th century, but in the 13th century it grew greatly." In the 8th century, Karakorum was a Uyghur city, but was destroyed during the war between the Uyghurs and the Kyrgyz. In fact, the city was rebuilt by the "Mongol-Tatars" under the leadership of Genghis Khan "on the old ruins of the Uyghur city of Karakorum." Fact the construction of the city by “nomads” in the second half of the 13th century is also confirmed by the data of Marco Polo.

In the Volga region there were other Mongol-Tatar cities, such as Saryklych (modern Sarov or Arzamas-16), according to some information, the former Saray, the capital of the Golden Horde, and Narovchat (later the mint of the Golden Horde - Ulus Jochi) was located here.

Cities called Tumen, built by the Tatars, were also in Siberia (for example, modern Tyumen), and in the North Caucasus. These cities "emerged on the sites of the Temniks, Mongol military commanders over an army of ten thousand." Let us add that the word “tumen” also meant an administrative territorial unit in the Mongol power, a kind of military administrative district, providing a ten-thousand-strong military unit with personnel and the necessary material resources. And the named cities, apparently, were the centers of these unique, small by modern standards, but then significant “military districts”.

With all this, these “nomads,” for some reason completely forgetting about “the purpose of their conquests, robbery and expansion of pastures” immediately after the “conquest” of the named regions, not only built cities, but also lived in them, without experiencing discomfort, peacefully coexisting and collaborating with representatives of absolutely all the “peoples they enslaved.”

Moreover, it is possible that many cities were built by medieval Tatars precisely before the “Mongol-Tatar invasion,” but these facts were hidden by the official historians of the West and East, as well as the facts that “the Tatars lived before on the lands where now Cumans also live." This assumption is supported at least by the fact that in the cities built by the medieval Tatars, coins were minted, crafts and trade developed, and support for agriculture was provided from there, that is, there is a progressive development of comprehensive economic and cultural activities in them.

And for some reason these “nomads, half-wild conquerors” either engaged themselves or allowed the peoples they “conquered” to engage in everything, trade, crafts, agriculture, and the creation of not only material, but also cultural values. As can be seen from the above information, the Mongol-Tatars were in no hurry “to return to their native great steppes with booty and slaves.” But this was precisely, according to official historians, their original and main goal in preparing and carrying out the conquests of the “civilized” world.

We agree with L.N. Gumilev, who strongly objected to the explanation of these facts by the fact that “the nomads, becoming poorer, turned into farmers and thereby joined civilization.”

Now let's look at some information that was ignored and not assessed in any way by official historians, for the reason that they do not “fit” in any way into the “generally accepted” theory about “ethnic Mongols - semi-wild nomads.”

The text of the “Collection of Chronicles of Rashid ad Din”, written by the Kazan historian, orientalist A.A. Arslanova, states that, “engaged in robbery and robbery in the areas adjacent to the Volga at the head of his accomplices, “the most shameless emir from the crowd of Kipchaks Bachman was hiding in the thickets on the banks of the Volga (Itil). Munke Khan ordered the construction of 200 ships and 100 fully armed Mongols to be placed in each one. And he and his brother Buchek went on a raid on both sides of the river.”

From the above quote it is clearly seen that we are talking about the construction by the Mongol-Tatars of a large river fleet, even by modern standards, of 200 ships. Even if the figure is, let’s say, ten times too high, there is still no doubt that the fleet was very respectable for that time. And it is strange that the “nomads”, “robbers” incapable of more or less creative work, were able to generally build large ships suitable for navigation on the Volga - with a carrying capacity of at least 10 tons.

In addition, as can be clearly seen from the context, the raid on Bachman was carried out precisely up the Volga, so that the mistake of the chronicle’s compiler is excluded, for example, that the author meant rafts for rafting an armed detachment downstream, that is, more primitive means for transporting people by water. There is also no data in the quoted narrative about the involvement of local craftsmen for the construction and management of the fleet, for example, “local Turks” or slaves.

And it is clear that Munke makes a decision quickly, the fleet is being built to the limit a short time, that is, the craftsmen were at the direct disposal of the khan, otherwise the chronicler would have noted the inevitable “delays” in connection with the delivery of craftsmen from more or less remote areas to the site of ship construction.

Therefore, it can be argued that Munke and his comrades used the experience and knowledge already available to the Mongol-Tatar people; probably, the troops included specialists who were able to build in a short time an impressive number of ships quite suitable for navigation on a large river , and could control them.

It is likely that the Tatars retained their shipbuilding skills from the time they lived on the other side of Eurasia: on Lake Baikal. Note that the name of Lake Baikal itself in the Tatar language means “Rich Lake”. And other Baikal place names can be easily understood by those who speak the modern Tatar language. So the name of the river “Angara” means “stupid”, “abnormal”, obviously because of its strangeness: all rivers flow into the sea or lake, but this one, “abnormal”, flows out. There is still a village on the coast of Lake Baikal called Kultuk, which in Tatar means “bay”.

Thus, the conclusion suggests itself that the Tatars lived on the Volga by the time in question and had fairly developed shipping. And these places in the lower reaches of the Volga were part of the territories of the Kimak state, created and ruled by the Tatars for at least three centuries “before the Mongol-Tatar invasion.” And neither “before the Mongols” nor “under the Mongols” did these Tatars disappear anywhere.

As can be seen from the information presented, which is worthy of trust, the Mongol-Tatars of Genghis Khan in their development were in no way behind the “sedentary” peoples, who had achieved a high level of material culture for their time. And this people, apparently, combined both a sedentary lifestyle and a nomadic, pastoral economy, and, moreover, it was by no means “unproductive.”

Considering the above, we can conclude that it is the combination of agriculture and other skills of a sedentary lifestyle with nomadic cattle breeding and other activities that require constant movement large groups population and was characteristic of the ethnic group "Mongol-Tatars of Genghis Khan", both ancient and medieval Tatars, approximately from the 8th century.