Space and time of traditional culture. “time is greater than space…” historical and mythological time in the cultural landscape

After studying the material in this chapter, the student should:

know

sociocultural conditionality of ideas about space and time;
main philosophical approaches to understanding space and time;
basic properties of space and time as forms of existence of matter;
features of the spatio-temporal characteristics of being at the physical, biological and social levels of the movement of matter;

be able to

reveal the content of the concepts of space and time, their relationship with each other and the main forms of motion of matter;
reveal the significance of the concepts of space and time for the modern scientific picture of the world;
compare the substantial and relational concepts of space and time;

own

Skills in the analysis of natural scientific foundations various concepts space and time.

Space and time as phenomena of culture and essential characteristics of human existence

Our ideas about space and time are historical, they change as the knowledge of nature develops. Modern ideas about time and space have little in common with the time and space perceived and experienced by people in other historical eras. A person is not born with a "sense of time", his temporal and spatial concepts are always determined by the culture to which he belongs.

Already at the beginning human history in mythology formed the oldest archetypes of space and time. In traditional cultures, space and time were not homogeneous, but emotionally and value-saturated.

A person lives in space, realizing his dependence on such characteristics as dimensions, boundaries, volumes, masters space, conquers it.

Mythological space is characterized by the property of a spiral unfolding in relation to a special "world center" as a certain point through which an imaginary "axis" of reversal passes, as it were. This meaning is preserved in modern language, where space is associated with concepts denoting "expansion", "stretch", "growth".

Space in the mythological era was interpreted not only as a kind of physical characteristic being, but was a kind of cosmic place in which the world tragedy of gods fighting each other, personified good or evil forces of nature, people, animals and plants unfolded.

It was the first image cultural space, which was heterogeneous, and therefore its individual places were filled with specific meanings and meanings for a person. It highlights the places where everyday life, and sacred (from lat. sacrum- sacred) place. The concept of sacred space includes the idea of the constant action of sacred forces that once for the first time illuminated and transformed this space, giving it a special meaning, and thus separating it from the surrounding space. Sacred space is the edge of human and natural worlds, it is an intermediary that connects heaven and earth, people and gods, visible and invisible, natural and supernatural; it unites extremes and unites opposites. Mankind assigned the status of "sacred" to mountains, stones, groves and individual trees, rivers and lakes, places of life of great people, cemeteries, temples and other monuments of cultural, historical and natural heritage.

The most important property of the mythological space was that it was not separated from time, forming a special unity with it, designated as a chronotope (from the Greek. chronos - time and topos - place, unity of spatial and temporal parameters).

In ancient times, man felt even greater dependence on time, since the understanding of the finiteness of earthly life and the inevitability of death as a transition to another world was associated with it. The ancient Greeks even had a god personifying time - Chronos (ancient Greek Χρόνος from χρόνος - time), space did not have such a deity.

People of antiquity and traditional cultures perceived time in the form cycle, where events occur in harmony with the rhythms of nature. Time does not flow linearly from the past to the future, but either does not move or rotates in a circle. Not without reason in the Slavic word "time" one can see the ancient image of rotation, wheels; "time" is related to words with the root "ver-", "vert-" - "to spin", "turntable", "turn", "cycle, circulation of the heavenly spheres, circulation of the heavens. Rotation, circle, cycle - a deep archetype of time in the spiritual culture of mankind.

The understanding of time in ancient culture remained under the strong influence of the mythological understanding of reality. The world was comprehended not in terms of change and development, but as being at rest or rotating in a "great circle". The irreversibility of time, which seems natural to our consciousness, is not at all such, if we go beyond the historically determined and therefore inevitably limited views inherent in people. modern civilization. Linear time is one of the possible forms of time that has triumphed as the only time reference system in the European cultural region. But even here it happened as a result of a long and complex development.

concept linear time, which flows from the past through the present to the future, was introduced in Christianity.

The world was created by God, it has a beginning - this statement means the existence of the world in time, where there is a beginning and there will be an end. St. Basil, believing that time was created by God as a kind of environment for the material world, as continuity and change of birth and death. In the beginning, and the temporal beginning, God creates the world. But the beginning of time is not yet time, "just as the beginning of the path is not yet the path."

The Christian understanding of time and history is presented as a horizontal line: there is a beginning - the creation of the world, the tragic act of man, his fall; the central event is the Incarnation; and the end is the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.

The beginning and end of time limit the duration of human history. Historical time acquires a certain structure, dividing into two main epochs: before the birth of Christ and after it.

History moves from an act of divine creation to the Last Judgment. Historical time becomes vector, linear and irreversible. At the same time, in the annual cycle of religious rituals, the time is different: the differences between the past, present and future were relative: every year there is the birth of Christ, his sacrifice and his resurrection.

The concept of linear time was finally established in European culture during the transition to a technogenic civilization, an industrial society in the process of the destruction of religious and the formation of rational consciousness. The invention of mechanical clocks as a means of accurately measuring time, its sequential counting at regular intervals, contributed to the formation of the idea of time as an objective process going from the past to the future through a point called the present. For the first time, time finally stretched out into a straight line, became linear. IN industrial society time becomes one of the main values, and they even talk about the "despotism of time."

Only through a series of transformations that occurred with the understanding of time, its modern interpretation arose. To paraphrase a well-known saying, we can say: times are changing, and with them our understanding of time is changing.

Cm.: Gurevich A. Ya. Categories of medieval culture. M.: Art, 1972.
See: Philosophy: a textbook for universities / ed. ed. V. V. Mironova. Part 2. Section IV. Ch. 2. M.: Norma, 2005.
Donskikh O. A. To the origins of language. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1988, p. 60.
St. Basil the Great. Conversations on the Six Days. S. 64.

Culture in space and cultural spaces

Space was understood in different ways by philosophers, physicists, mathematicians and interpreted by them as a kind of receptacle, a void filled with clumps of matter, things and their relationships. In the earthly, sensible world, everything really is in a certain three-dimensional space, and taking into account the time coordinate - four-dimensional. And what we call culture is also in it. On Earth, spatiality is realized as a variety of geocosmic and geographically landscape reality, special extents, volumes, areas, diversity. And this is extremely important in relation to culture, and more precisely, to cultures that arise and develop in specific physical and geographical conditions.

Many features cultural life due to the terrain, landscape and length of the territory. Civilizations are known in the history of culture various types: river, sea, ocean, mountain, steppe, forest, desert. It would seem that all this is due only to natural factors. But the organization of life, the economic structure, the type of dwellings, means of communication, culinary preferences and technologies, beliefs, i.e., the nature and forms of culture as a whole, largely depend on them. So, the boundlessness of open spaces or, conversely, spatial constraint, tightness, to a large extent determine the originality of cultures, their values and forms of expression.

Along with this, what is called social space is being formed in the life of society - various complexly organized systems of relations in which people's lives take place. This social space is almost always socio-cultural. Culture, arising and developing, generates and changes those spaces that do not completely coincide with either physical-cosmic, or physical-geographical, or even with proper social spaces, although they are closely related to the latter.

The space that we call cultural has not only external contours, it is "located" in spiritual world society and personality. This spatial layer, or volume, is especially important, as it affects the motivation of people's behavior.

Cultural space interacts with geographical, economic, political, ethnic, linguistic and informational spaces. It, like all of the above, has its own specifics, special configuration and architectonics, ways of translation and dynamics of changes.

But what is a cultural space after all, in contrast to the spaces in which culture is located and with which it interacts?

Cultural space - it is a field (by analogy with physical fields) generated by interactions and influences of cultural values and their systems.

The values of culture as specific relationships between people are embodied, objectified in various media and create a kind of spiritual atmosphere. If in architecture, sculpture, music or literature, and most importantly - in the actions of people, one way or another, faith, love, honor, beauty, decency, taste, etc. are really embodied, then there appears a spatial-emotional richness, an aura of kindness and mercy, decency, nobility and grace. In other words, an atmosphere appears that affects the people who live in it. For example, the architecture of St. Petersburg is not just beautiful houses, but ensembles, streets, squares, in which cultural values are concentrated.

Of course, it does not follow from this that all people or even most of those living in such a concentrated cultural environment correspond to it. But thanks to the spatial concentration of cultural values, the possibilities for spiritual improvement and cultural development are clearly expanding. And not only opportunities for spiritual improvement, but also tendencies to ennoble the environment, or at least to preserve culture.

° Despite the fact that culture can spread everywhere, it is still localized in the so-called centers of culture, reaching there extraordinary expressiveness and effectiveness. There are many examples of such historical localization. It's culture and ancient egypt, and Ancient Greece, and Paris with its unique role as the cultural capital of not only France, but the whole of Europe. Places of localization of culture are constantly changing.

But so far, despite the fact that civilization has provided colossal opportunities for more even cultural development than before, there are still cultural centers and provinces. Moreover, where the materialized values of culture are concentrated to the greatest extent, anti-cultural processes are most often exacerbated. Each of us lives in a certain cultural space, or rather spaces. This is due to the fact that different systems values (their ensembles) create different cultural spaces that interact with each other, being parts of a more or less integral cultural space of a region, country, city, place.

The first ideas about time arose in the process of differentiation of society from the surrounding world. Becoming more and more autonomous, society acquires own time development, which arises as a break with the environment. social time(synchronous activity time large groups people) at first, as it were, adapts to natural time, and then becomes more and more free from it. The main factor determining the course of social time will be the transforming creative activity of a person, through which he changes both himself and the environment. Social time can differ significantly from calendar time. So, according to the calendar of the XIX century. began in 1801 and ended in 1900. But from the standpoint of cultural history, but by the standards of social time, it began in 1789 (with the French Revolution) and ended in 1914 (with the outbreak of the First World War)

As a result of the interaction of natural rhythms and social time, cultural time gradually arises, which in many respects is the opposite of natural time (it is reversible, qualitatively heterogeneous, extensible), it presents simultaneously (and entirely) the past, present and future, i.e. it is synchronously visible. These features of cultural time allow us to speak of it as a space of human spirituality.

The first ideas about time are most likely formed in the Paleolithic on the basis of attempts to comprehend the processes of movement and change. The transition from the primitive herd to the first form social community- to the genus - was a transition from "nature" to "culture", which means that it required the replacement of natural biological ties that united individuals in a herd with artificial, suprabiological ones; it was extremely important to create a common time, i.e. life in the same rhythm. Otherwise, joint is impossible, i.e. coordinated activity. The first rituals created a single rhythm, for which all improvised means were used - the human voice, clapping, stamping, extracting sound from everything that can sound, as well as joint bodily movements (ritual dances). there is no clear distinction between past, present and future. Time is considered spiritualized, qualitatively heterogeneous (for example, “happy” and “unhappy”), which does not precede relationships, events and things, but is created by them and is not able to exist in isolation from them.

Civilizations that appeared later, in order to overcome the limitations of tribal life, had to find such a standard of rhythm, which would allow coordinating the life of people over long distances. The first sedentary cultures with this goal established a connection between the cycles of river flooding, in the valleys of which they settled, with the cycles of the circulation of celestial bodies. Therefore, these civilizations are also characterized by a cyclical idea of time. It must be remembered that such representations remain local as well.

The idea of a single linear time of culture will remain only in the Christian worldview. It is worth noting that it creates a unified time of culture through special arrangements leaning on the death of Jesus Christ. It was the ϶ᴛᴏ event that made it possible to freely move from one rhythm of joint life to another. In Christianity, time was transformed from a foreign force beyond the control of people into a means of educating humanity. Time was supposed to unite people and serve the purposes of creation.

Modern ideas about time could not have appeared without the birth of Protestantism, which for the first time substantiated the need for active human activity here on Earth.
From one point of view, ϶ᴛᴏ contributed to the industrial revolution that marked the beginning of modern civilization. The new attitude to time turned out to be economically productive, made me appreciate every moment, not put off life, hoping for the coming eternity. But on the other hand, the slogan “time is money” leads to the loss of values and the meaninglessness of the world, which has become one of the reasons for the crisis of modern culture.

It was the realization of these reasons that led to a change in attitude to time. Today there is a demassification of time (it becomes more individual) and its restructuring. According to E. Toffler, the “third wave” challenged mechanical synchronization, replacing most of our basic social rhythms and freeing us from machine dependence on data. Yeshe in the 1970s. there was a flexible time when the employee was allowed to choose hours of work.

Now, as a result of the ultimate expansion of the space of culture (globalization) and the formation of a common time, a new cultural identity is being formed. Modern humanity, watching on TV screens and monitors the events taking place in the world, both in real time and in recording, demonstrates complete independence from natural, calendar, geographical and even social time. At any time of the day or night in any part of the world, a person can view any event, regardless of the real time it happened. Since humanity is more and more aware that it has a common destiny, time itself as a phenomenon of culture ceases to be “different” (every culture has ϲʙᴏe), it becomes more and more common, it no longer divides people, but unites them.

E. Hall's cultural grammar

It is worth saying that each culture contains a number of key elements - cultural categories, which determine the ways of communication and behavior of individuals. It is important to note that one of the largest specialists in intercultural communication E. Hall distinguishes such categories as time, space, context and information flows.

Time as a category in all cultures it serves as an important indicator of the pace of life, the rhythm of activity.
The consequence of this will be the planning of time, without which the functioning of modern society is unthinkable, as well as the regulation of people's priorities and preferences. The types and forms of communication between people depend on the value of time in culture. Do not forget that an important indicator of how ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙ relates to time in different cultures will be people's attitudes towards punctuality. Material published on http: // site
For example, in Germany, Switzerland and some other European countries, as well as in North America, the interlocutor is usually expected to appear on time, and there is a certain scale of being late, and for each step of the ϶ᴛᴏth scale, an appropriate form of apology is provided. So, the unwritten rules of business data European cultures allow no more than 7 minutes to be late for an appointment. It is important to know that a greater delay will be a demonstration of one's own frivolity and threatens to lose the possibility of gaining the partner's trust. Students waiting in the classroom for a teacher can leave it after 15 minutes and there will be mores.

Another very important aspect will be the basic time perspective, which varies significantly in different cultures. For example, Iran, India and some countries of the Far East are oriented to the past, the USA is oriented to the present and the near future; Russia is most likely characterized by an orientation towards the past and the future, with maximum attention being paid to the future, while the present is given little importance.

Time will be an indicator of the pace of life and the rhythm of activity adopted in a particular culture. According to the way of using time, cultures are usually divided into two opposite types - monochronic, where time is distributed in such a way that only one type of activity is possible in the same period of time, therefore one follows the other, like links of one value, and polychronic, when in the same period of time, not one type of activity is possible, but several at once.

In monochronic cultures, time is understood as a linear system, like a long straight street, by which people move forward or stay in the past. Here time can be saved, lost, made up, accelerated; time to maintain order in the organization human life. Based on the fact that a “monochronous” person is engaged in only one type of activity at a certain period of time, he, as it were, “closes” in his own world, where other people do not have access. People of this type do not like to be interrupted in the course of any activity. Material published on http: // site
It is this system of time use that dominates many industrial developed countries- Germany, the USA, a number of northern European countries. Monochronic time will stay only at a high level of development of civilization, and not among all peoples.

It is worth saying that polychronic time is the opposite of monochronic time. In cultures of the ϶ᴛᴏth type big role play interpersonal, human relationships and communication with a person is more important than the accepted plan of action. Material published on http: // site
To typical polychronic cultures ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙ Latin America, the Middle East and the states of the Mediterranean, as well as Russia. In these cultures, punctuality and daily routine are not given much importance. It is precisely this type of time that is inherent in all peoples from the very beginning.

Space. It is worth saying that for a normal existence, each person needs a certain amount of space around him, which he considers ϲʙᴏ his personal space and an invasion of it is usually regarded as an attempt on inner world person. The dimensions of the ϶ᴛᴏth space depend on the degree of closeness with certain people, forms of communication accepted in a given culture, type of activity, etc.

It is worth saying that each person subconsciously sets and intuitively maintains the boundaries of his personal space, which traditionally do not create problems for communication. These boundaries depend, in particular, on the attitude towards a particular interlocutor.

So, friends always stand closer to each other than strangers. Excluding the above, the distance of communication partners depends on such factors as gender, race, belonging to a culture or subculture, specific social circumstances, etc. Hall, based on the results of his observations, identified four zones of communication:

intimate - shared by fairly close people who do not want to dedicate third parties to this life. In almost all cultures of the world, it is not customary to invade someone else's intimate area. Zones of intimate distance depend on a particular cultural environment. Yes, in Western European cultures it is about 60 cm; in the cultures of Eastern European peoples - approximately 45 cm, in the countries of Southern Europe and the Mediterranean - the distance from the tip of the fingers to the elbow of the hand. Partners at ϶ᴛᴏm distance not only see, but also feel each other well;
personal - the distance that an individual maintains between himself and all other people when communicating; ϶ᴛᴏ personal space that directly surrounds the human body and is 45-120 cm. At this distance, physical contact is not necessary. This is the optimal distance for talking, talking with friends and good acquaintances;
social - the distance between people in formal and secular communication, the distance at which we keep when communicating with strangers or with small group of people. The social (public) zone is 120-260 cm. It is worth noting that it is most convenient for formal communication, since it allows all participants not only to hear the partner, but also to see him. This distance is usually maintained at business meeting, meetings, discussions, press conferences, etc.;
public - the distance of communication at public events (meetings, in the audience, etc.), i.e. the distance preferred when communicating with a large group of people, a mass audience. By the way, this zone involves such forms of communication as meetings, presentations, lectures, reports and speeches, etc. The public zone starts at a distance of 3.5 m and can stretch indefinitely, but within the limits of maintaining communicative contact. Therefore, the public area is also called open.

The spatial factor in communication can also serve to express the relationship of domination-submission, and in

Each culture has adopted different signals expressing relationships in power. For example, in Germany and the United States, the upper floors of offices are usually reserved for company executives. At ϶ᴛᴏm, corner offices with the widest view are traditionally occupied by general managers or company owners. In Russia and France, managers try to avoid the upper and, in general, outer floors, preferring to place offices and offices on the middle floors of the building. This is explained by the fact that power and control in these countries usually come from the center.

Context. The nature and results of the communication process are also determined by the degree of awareness of its participants. In some cultures, for full communication, additional detailed and detailed information is needed, since there are practically no informal networks of information in them and, as a result, people are not well informed; these cultures are called low context cultures. In other cultures, people do not need to receive detailed information, ɥᴛᴏ to have clear picture what is happening, since, due to the high density of informal information networks, they are always well informed; such societies are called high-context cultures.

The high density of information networks implies close contacts between family members, constant contacts with friends, colleagues, clients, so that they are constantly aware of everything that is happening around. Countries with a high cultural context include France, Spain, Italy, the countries of the Middle East, Japan and Russia. The type of low-constance cultures includes Germany, Switzerland; in culture North America the middle and low contexts are connected.

information flows. For the communication process, the value of information flows is determined by the forms and speed of information dissemination. In some cultures, information is distributed slowly, purposefully, through specially designed channels, and therefore is limited, while in others, the information dissemination system operates quickly and widely.

For example, in northern European countries with monochronic cultures and low context, especially in Germany, the transmitted information is more important than the one that is already in memory, because here people, figuratively speaking, are fenced off from the outside world and they need external information. This is a type of culture with a low rate of dissemination of information. In these countries, everything must have a ϲʙᴏyu structure and order, everything is extremely precisely defined by the rules, and there is little room for personal initiative. People are involved in the flow of information, overloaded the smallest details. It is worth saying that in order to process it, an introduction is required a large number rules governing its distribution.

In high-context cultures, such as Russia, France, and the countries of Southern Europe, things happen in the opposite way. These are polychronic cultures with a high rate of dissemination of information. People of these cultures are included in an effective informal information network and traditionally do not fence themselves off from possible interference from the external environment. Information passes unimpeded, and the data that is stored in memory will be more important than the vehicle that is retransmitted. People are perfectly informed about everything, and they do not need to find out the background of each new event. The overload of information channels does not happen often, because people are constantly in contact with each other. In these cultures, it is not customary to plan the daily routine and all kinds of activities to limit its time and space, as they can interfere with vital contacts between people.

The concept of mental programs

The concept of mental programs was proposed by one of the largest modern scientists, the Dutchman Geert Hofstede (born 1928), who believes that human behavior largely depends on his mental programs. Under mental programs Hofstede understands "patterns of thought, feeling and action". It is worth noting that he distinguishes three levels of such programs. At the lower level are universal, similar programs for all individuals; they are inherited genetically and will be an integral part of human nature. The middle level consists of those mental programs that are specific to a particular group of individuals and are formed through social learning with constant interaction within the group; models of the ϶ᴛᴏ level Hofstede calls culture. The highest level includes mental programs that are specific to a particular individual and determine his individuality; some of these programs are inherited genetically, some are formed through training.

The sources of mental programs will be culture and social environment, i.e. those conditions in which socialization and inculturation of a person take place. This means that mental programs are determined by the so-called dimensions of culture, including: power distance, collectivism-individualism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance. Later, another indicator was introduced - long-term orientation.

power distance shows the importance in different cultures attached to power relations between people and how cultures vary in relation to this feature.

In cultures with high power distance, there is a strong dependency between superiors and subordinates. In this case, the emotional distance between superiors and subordinates is very large. The latter must either recognize the authority of his boss, or, completely reject it, break off relations, only in rare cases can they ask questions to his boss, not to mention ɥᴛᴏ to criticize him. In family relationships, family members with authority (parents, older siblings, etc.) also require obedience. The development of independence is not encouraged. The main virtue is respectful attitude to parents and older family members.

In cultures with low (small) power distance highest value have values such as equality in relationships and individual ϲʙᴏboda. Therefore, the communication is less formal, the equality of interlocutors is emphasized more strongly, and the style of communication is more consultative than in cultures with a high power distance. In such cultures, the emotional distance between superiors and subordinates is negligible, and subordinates can always approach their boss with a question or make critical remarks. Open disagreement or active opposition to the boss is also seen as the norm. In family relations, children are treated as equal members of the family from that time.

when they begin to actively participate in family life. The ideal state in the family is considered personal independence, and the need for independence will be perhaps the most important element of people in cultures with a small power distance.

individualism vs collectivism- ϶ᴛᴏ an indicator that people prefer to take care only of themselves and own families or unite in some groups that are responsible for a person in exchange for his loyalty.

The vast majority of people live in collectivist societies, in which the interests of the group prevail over the interests of the individual; a minority of people on the planet live in individualistic societies where the interests of the individual prevail over the interests of the group.

In a collectivist culture, group goals take precedence over individual ones. Here people show interest in close-knit groups. Group loyalty is one of the most important values, direct confrontation is not welcome, as it violates the overall harmony. With ϶ᴛᴏm between the individual and the group initially develop a relationship of dependence. The group defends the individual, but in return requires him to be loyal to the group. In such societies there is no "personal opinion". The opinion of the individual is determined by the opinion of the group. The collectivist type of culture is currently widespread in such countries as Guatemala, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, Korea; Russia is also classified as a collectivist type of culture.

The cell of individualistic cultures is the nuclear family, in which children are taught to be independent, to rely on their strengths. Children who grow up in small families in individualistic cultures quickly learn to perceive the self as separate from other people. The goal of education is for the child to become independent, i.e. teach him independence, incl. from parents. In such societies, from physically healthy person he is not expected to be dependent on the group in any respect. Individualist cultures are the cultures of the USA, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand and other countries.

Masculinity-femininity. Masculinity - ϶ᴛᴏ an assessment of people's tendency to assertiveness and rigidity, focusing on material success to the detriment of interest in other people, while femininity is an orientation towards home, family, social values, as well as softness, emotionality and sensuality.

The biological differences between men and women, which are the same throughout the world, do little to explain them. social roles in society. Many behaviors that are not directly related to procreation are considered in society to be typically masculine or typically feminine.

In highly masculine societies, the social roles of men and women differ sharply. Here, the generally accepted orientation of men is towards material success and rigidity in their positions, as opposed to women's values, among which the main place is occupied by modesty and sensitivity. In cultures of this type, competitive struggle, competitiveness and the desire to win are welcome. In work, priority is given to the result, and rewards are based on the principle of a real contribution to the cause. Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, Great Britain, Germany, etc. join masculine cultures.

In feminine cultures, role differences between the male and female parts of the population are not given much importance. Moreover, both demonstrate great similarity in their positions and views. All members of society pay special attention to spiritual values, such as maintaining relationships between people, caring for others, attention to a person. The preferred way to resolve conflicts is to find a compromise, and the reward for work is based on the principle of equality. Hofstede classifies Sweden as a feminine culture. Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Chile, Portugal and other countries. It can be assumed that Russia also belongs to the ϶ᴛᴏ series.

Uncertainty avoidance -϶ᴛᴏ is an indicator of how tolerant people are of uncertain situations, trying to avoid them by developing clear rules, believing in absolute truth and refusing to tolerate deviant behavior.

In cultures with a high level of ϶ᴛᴏ, an individual in a situation of uncertainty experiences stress and a sense of fear. A high level of uncertainty, according to Hofstede, leads not only to increased stress in individuals, but also to the release of a large amount of energy from them. Therefore, in such cultures there is a high level of aggressiveness, for which special channels are created to exit. This will be in the existence of numerous formalized rules governing actions, which enable people to avoid uncertainty in behavior as much as possible. These cultures are more resistant to any change and less prone to risk. Countries with a high level of uncertainty avoidance include Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Belgium, Japan, France, Chile, Spain, etc.

In cultures with a low level of uncertainty avoidance, on the contrary, a tolerant attitude towards situations of uncertainty is adopted. Men in difficult situations improvise and show initiative, are characterized by a propensity for risk. In countries with such a culture, there is a negative attitude towards the introduction of strictly formalized rules, so they are established only when necessary. In general, people here believe that they are able to solve problems without detailed formal rules. To cultures with a low level of uncertainty avoidance ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙt such countries as Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark, Sweden, Ireland, Great Britain, India, USA, etc.

Long term orientation, formerly called Confucian dynamism, shows how a society is pragmatic and strategically oriented towards the future, as opposed to traditionalism and short-term (tactical) orientation.

In societies with a long-term orientation, people recognize the importance of values such as perseverance, the status principle of relationships, thrift, and a sense of shame that promote entrepreneurial activity. So, perseverance and perseverance are ϶ᴛᴏ the key to any entrepreneurial activity; a harmonious and stable hierarchy facilitates the performance of role duties; frugality contributes to the accumulation of capital, which can then be reinvested in business, and, finally, a sense of shame makes people more sensitive to social contacts and strive to fulfill their obligations. The low level of Confucian dynamism, or short-term orientation, on the contrary, inhibits entrepreneurship. Striving for sustainability and stability above a certain standard hinders the initiative, risk-taking and flexibility that an entrepreneur needs in a constantly changing market. "Saving face", excessive respect for traditions is directly related to the rejection of all kinds of innovations. And the mutual exchange of gifts and congratulations, patronage - rituals, in which more attention is paid to the impeccability of manners than to solving the tasks.

CULTURE TIME

the most important aspect of the model of the world, a characteristic of the duration of existence, rhythm, tempo, sequence, coordination of the change in the states of culture as a whole and its elements, as well as their semantic content for a person. For cultural studies are essential both subjective forms of perception of time, and objectified with the help of figurative, verbal-sign, symbolic, conceptual means of representing the temporal characteristics of being. However, the subjective perception of time and objectified ideas about it are closely interconnected, which is manifested not only in the objectification of subjective images of time, but also in the influence of theories about the essence of V.K., which are significant for a certain culture. on its perception by people belonging to a given culture. This relationship is quite peculiar, since, say, the doctrine of atoms did not change the perception of matter by individuals, and Newton's theory of time significantly determines not only his mental image, but also its understanding of the type of geometric line. Specificity of V.K. is that, in contrast to material items, cannot be perceived with the help of the senses, and therefore its image is intertwined with def. metaphors and is conditioned by them. This feature is inherent in the perception of all, without exception, phenomena and processes that are inaccessible to the senses. As a result, the supersensible is replaced by something visual, which, in fact, allows you to do a metaphor. V. to., fundamentally not being given to sensory perception, is constituted by each culture in its own way, and this is not a trivial “marking” of some objectively existing V. to., but def. rationalization of the processes of formation and change, which are only given to the senses. In this sense scientific presentation about V.K. exactly the same rationalization (raised to the level of theoretical generalization), like the modern ordinary, as well as historically fixed images of V.K., inherent different cultures. VK, expressing the deepest features of the world outlook, is one of the categories of culture. Therefore, abstract time is mathematical. natural sciences, and concret. the time of everyday life and history have def. , although diff. semantic fullness for a person, and the first has no “birthright” in relation to the second. It's about about diff. purposes and levels of comprehension of the phenomenon of V.K. In accordance with this, it is said about biol., psychol., fiz., geogr. etc. time. Moreover, “abstract” time does not precede “concrete”, but, on the contrary, “builds up” over the corresponding images and cannot exist without them. Everything that exists has temporal characteristics, which makes it impossible to define time in its classical sense. understanding as an assignment to a certain genus and an enumeration of species characteristics. Time cannot be attributed to any “genus”, and therefore all its definitions are tautological and use associations associated with it or seek to express its essence with the help of properties inherent in space. The latter is far from accidental, and the connection with space is one of the most essential beings, the universal properties of time. With the rationalization of ideas about time, such universal properties as one-dimensionality, asymmetry and irreversibility are also distinguished in it. But it was precisely the connection of time with space that served as the starting point for subsequent rationalizations of the temporal characteristics of everything that exists. Time and space are necessary components of the entire human content. perception (fields of perception), being ways of distinguishing objects. At the same time, space is the perception of feelings, impressions coexisting in the field of perception, and time is the alternation of accumulated feelings, impressions, i.e. def. the relationship between immediate and previously received perceptions.

The formation of the first ideas about time begins, most likely, already in the Paleolithic on the basis of attempts to comprehend the processes of movement and change. But this could not be a manifestation of simple curiosity. The transition from the primitive herd to the first form of human. community, genus, as a transition from “nature” to “culture”, required the replacement of biol., natural connections that united individuals in a herd, suprabiol., artificial. These last connections, like everything "cultural", i.e. artificial, does not arise by itself, i.e. "by nature". This requires def. human effort, and this case it was aimed at creating shared time. Be in a joint V.K. means, first of all, to live in a single rhythm. Otherwise, no joint, i.e. coordinated activity. The first rituals were supposed to create exactly a single rhythm, and for this, all improvised means were used - vocal cords people, clapping, stamping, extracting sound from everything that can only sound, as well as joint bodily movements limited by the scope of the ritual (ritual dances). The purpose of all this was to prepare for future action outside the ritual, in everyday life, both emotionally and by developing a def. skills. On this basis, an image of a cyclic VK is formed, in which there is no movement “forward”, towards something “new”. There is a repetition of what has already happened, there is no clear distinction between the past, present and future, which are merged into concret. human experience. If there is no experience of VK, then there is no time as such, it is perceived as a kind of property, which a person owns together with other members of this collective. The idea of V.K. as something objective, existing independently of people, is absent. VC. is considered something spiritual, qualitatively heterogeneous (e.g. "happy" and "unhappy"), not preceding interhuman-vech. relations, events, things, but created by them and not able to exist in isolation from them. Space is an indispensable characteristic of temporal relations, and the unity of the temporal and spatial properties of what is happening is always implied. Gradually, the idea of “great time” is being formed, in which the present state of the world was created and which, precisely for this reason, becomes sacred. In other words, the past is subjected to sacralization.

All subsequent methods of constituting V.K. solve the same problem - the creation of a joint V.K. as an existential condition of human. communities. To overcome the limitations of tribal life, it was necessary to find such a standard of rhythm that would allow coordinating the life of people over long distances and creating the “territory” itself. The first sedentary cultures did this by establishing a connection between the cycles of flooding of the rivers, in the valleys to which they settled, with the cycles of the circulation of celestial bodies. If the members of the genus for the constitution of their V.K. listened to the “voice of the ancestor” sounding through the mask of a shaman, then the first sedentary cultures look to the sky, the rhythm of which allows you to “synchronize” life on earth on a vast area and create a giant cycle of V.K. This principle of constituting a joint V.K. required complex ritual mechanisms and special structures, the most important of which is the temple as the place where the sky is modeled on earth. And although the first sedentary cultures shift the center of gravity from the past to the present, the common thing that unites them with the world of childbirth is the cyclical nature of V.K.

To break this cycle, it was necessary to postulate the possibility of stopping, after which V.K. could start over again. This was done in Hebrew. culture, thanks to the Sabbath, which, being the point of an absolute break in V.K., provided the possibility of such a stop and, consequently, liberation from the power of both the past and the present. The future becomes dominant. The “pull” coming from the future no longer constitutes a cyclic, but a linear V.K., which means an understanding of V.K. as a story, as a prophetic word becoming flesh. Thus, history is not a gradual revelation of what was already ready-made in the c.-l. moment of the VK cycle, namely, the fulfillment of the promised, creation as the appearance of the new, which does not repeat the old, is unpredictable, once, and is revealed as the promise of God. In other words, history VC. becomes the arena of the deities. revelations, and only God can lead a person out of the unceasing circulation and grant him peace - the Sabbath. Then there is an opportunity to look at everything from the end of V.K. as states of the fullness of creation, and this makes all private beliefs and attachments relative. End of V.K. reveals the mortality of these beliefs and attachments, which inevitably forced the constitution of V.K. as a cycle (otherwise they could not be saved as self-identical). The myths of the “eternal return”, bypassing death and eliminating it from the constitution of VK, hide everything that preceded the initial moment. Thus, in fact, creating a private relationship, they mask its fundamental fragmentation. Under the conditions of constitution of V.K. as a cyclical there can be no history, but only a set of “stories”, the course of which is directed from the “golden age” down the line until the restoration of the original. "fullness". The time of history, on the other hand, does not begin with private attachments. (e.g. the death of a culture hero or the founding of Rome), but is located “beyond” any particular past, starting with the creation of Adam, and his int. tension is created by the activities of the prophets and the expectation of the Messiah. Thus, V.K. for the first time is recognized as potentially common to all human beings. kind. In order for it to become really general, it was necessary to go beyond that separate section. people, the life of which for the first time began to flow in history. VC. Otherwise, the history.V.K. nevertheless turns out to be private, local, and not universal. But outside of such a V.K. there were not only clans and the first sedentary cultures arranged according to the type of oriental despotisms. The unique culture of Ancient Greece created one more, fourth and last way of constituting a local VK, which was supposed to provide common Greek. unity, i.e. coordinated life in the "focal territory" (polises and islands). The ancient Greeks for the first time tried to eliminate the compulsion of VK by introducing “free time” or “leisure” into its composition. Forced V.K. means the need to serve people, spirits or gods. Ritual dances of the clan are not leisure, but a duty, and the temple worship of the East are the same duties. despot, Heb. Saturday and even the expectation of the Messiah. On the contrary, free time is the time during which a person is free from any obligations, not only to concret. people, but also in front of his “work”, and, therefore, does not depend on the deities, and the human. coercion. Leisure is time, to which the person himself “possesses”, while outside of it V.K. "owns" him, constantly putting forward before him decomp. imperatives. Thus, an element of play is introduced into culture, and the time of play is reversible, isolated from the seriousness and dangers of life's struggle. The game, in turn, is the essence of other Greek. school, which made it possible to introduce students into foreign communities and cultures through training, and creates a special type of joint V.K. The time of the game provides both the self-identity of the Greek. culture, and colonization, but this is an abstract time, incompatible with history, its one-time and concreteness. Compatibility V.K. is bought precisely at the price of making it abstract and therefore reversible.

A single joint V.K. could only be created by introducing all cultures into history. VC. But for this it was necessary to include the meaning-forming function of the end of time in the present. Dr. Heb. culture was only interested in the beginning of time and its end, but it was necessary to establish directly. the relation of each moment to the final meaning of V.K., i.e. make each moment a meeting of past and future. So that all local, particular forms of V.K. opened to meet each other, it was necessary to show that death is exactly the same imperative of the future as life. Christianity creates a single V.K. with the help of special mechanisms based on the death of Jesus Christ. It is this event that relativizes all previous calendar systems, providing the possibility of free movement from one rhythm of joint life to another: “... Saturday for a person, not a person for Saturday” (Mark 2:27). And this means the destruction of impenetrable boundaries between cultures, which is why the apostle Paul calls Jesus Christ the “king of the ages” (1 Tim. 1:17). "Vek" (eon)- this is the rhythm of living together, inherent in a separate local culture, and the doctrine of eons becomes a necessary element of Christ. concepts of V.K. But the aeon is a finite and therefore transient period of time. Christ. reckoning is not based on the transfer of dep. moments of V.k., but is made up of epochs, periods, eons, the unity and meaningfulness of which is determined on the basis of a single V.k. On the other hand, time can be dissected only having it previously as something whole, and only under this condition do many aeons form the fullness of time. This gives orientation in time, since now all zones open towards each other and obey the "aeon zone" that encloses them. As a result, firstly, the possibility of free change of both people and the world arises, and secondly, with all changes, the unity of the meaning of V.K. Therefore, the concept of the history of Spengler and Toynbee, openly opposed to Christ. concepts of time, have it as their preliminary, conditions: analysis of the department. cultures declared to be geometrically closed would not have been possible without the “zone of aeons” as the fullness of time. After all, it is precisely belonging to it that is implicitly attributed to the historian, only thanks to this and seeing the unclouded meaning of each local culture. That is why the evolution of ideas about V.K. can become the subject of a detailed cultural study. analysis based on an interdisciplinary approach.

However, Christ herself the concept of time, like all elements of culture, requires effort to maintain it. Therefore, it is not surprising that a side effect overall process secularization was the revival of the concepts of cyclical. VC. - both traditional and artificially constructed in the context of non-traditions. religious and quasi-religious. movements. Another feature of modern ideas about time is the identification of history with physicalist models of time, which lies in line with the naturalistic. vision of man and his world as ontologically autonomous. Deprived of deities, and human. meaning time is a characteristic manifestation of nihilism.

Lit.: Akhundov M.D. Concepts of space and time: Origins, evolution, prospects. M., 1982; Gurevich A.Ya. Middle-century categories. culture. M., 1984; Bakhtin M.M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on the history. poetics // Bakhtin M.M. Literary-critical. articles. M., 1986; Trubnikov N.N. Time human being. M., 1987; Eliade M. Space and history. M., 1987; He is. Sacred and mundane. M., 1994; Jaspers K. The origins of history and its purpose // Jaspers K. The meaning and purpose of history. M., 1991; Bulgakov S.I. Apocalyptic and socialism // Bulgakov S.N. Op. in 2 vols. T. 2. M., 1993; Spengler O. Decline of Europe. Novosibirsk, 1993; Berdyaev N.A. Experience of eschatological metaphysics // Berdyaev N.A. The Kingdom of the Spirit and the Kingdom of Caesar. M., 1995; He is. The meaning of history. M., 1990;

Cassirer E. Philosophic der symbolischen Fonnen. bd. 1-3. V., 1923-29; LoweR. Cosmos and Aion. Gutersloh, 1935; Taubes J. Abendlandische Eschatologie. Bern, 1947; Rosenstock-Huessy E. Soziologie. bd. 2. Die Vollzahl der Zeiten. Stutt., 1958; Bultmann R. History and Eschatology. Edinburgh, 1957; Sorabji R. Time, Creation and the Continuum: Theories in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Ithaca (N.Y.), 1983; Eliade M. Histoire des croyances et des idees religieuses. T. 1-3. P., 1976-84.

A. I. Pigalev

Culturology. XX century. Encyclopedia. 1998 .

culture time

the most important aspect of the model of the world, a characteristic of the duration of existence, rhythm, tempo, sequence, coordination of the change in the states of culture as a whole and its elements, as well as their semantic content for a person. For cultural studies are essential both subjective forms of perception of time, and objectified with the help of figurative, verbal-sign, symbolic, conceptual means of representing the temporal characteristics of being. However, the subjective perception of time and objectified ideas about it are closely interconnected, which is manifested not only in the objectification of subjective images of time, but also in the influence of theories about the essence of V.K., which are significant for a certain culture. on its perception by people belonging to a given culture. This relationship is quite peculiar, since, say, the doctrine of atoms did not change the perception of matter by individual people, and Newton's theory of time essentially determines not only its mental image, but also its understanding by the type of a geometric line. Specificity of V.K. consists in the fact that, unlike material objects, it cannot be perceived with the help of the senses, and therefore its image is intertwined with def. metaphors and is conditioned by them. This feature is inherent in the perception of all, without exception, phenomena and processes that are inaccessible to the senses. As a result, the supersensible is replaced by something visual, which, in fact, allows you to do a metaphor. V. to., fundamentally not being given to sensory perception, is constituted by each culture in its own way, and this is not a trivial “marking” of some objectively existing V. to., but def. rationalization of the processes of formation and change, which are only given to the senses. In this sense, the scientific idea of V.K. exactly the same rationalization of it (raised to the level of theoretical generalization), as well as modern. everyday, as well as historically recorded images of V.K., inherent in different cultures. VK, expressing the deepest features of the world outlook, is one of the categories of culture. Therefore, abstract time is mathematical. natural sciences, and concret. the time of everyday life and history have a definition, although diff. semantic fullness for a person, and the first has no “birthright” in relation to the second. It's about dif. purposes and levels of comprehension of the phenomenon of V.K. In accordance with this, it is said about biol., psychol., fiz., geogr. etc. time. Moreover, “abstract” time does not precede “concrete”, but, on the contrary, “builds up” over the corresponding images and cannot exist without them. Everything that exists has temporal characteristics, which makes it impossible to define time in its classical sense. understanding as an assignment to a certain genus and an enumeration of species characteristics. Time cannot be attributed to any “genus”, and therefore all its definitions are tautological and use associations associated with it or seek to express its essence with the help of properties inherent in space. The latter is far from accidental, and the connection with space is one of the most important beings. universal properties of time. With the rationalization of ideas about time, such universal properties as one-dimensionality, asymmetry and irreversibility are also distinguished in it. But it was precisely the connection of time with space that served as the starting point for subsequent rationalizations of the temporal characteristics of everything that exists. Time and space are necessary components of the entire human content. perceptions (fields of perception), being ways of distinguishing objects. At the same time, space is the perception of coexisting feelings in the field of perception. impressions, and time - the alternation of accumulated feelings. impressions, i.e. def. the relationship between immediate and previously received perceptions.

The formation of the first ideas about time begins, most likely, already in the Paleolithic on the basis of attempts to comprehend the processes of movement and change. But this could not be a manifestation of simple curiosity. The transition from the primitive herd to the first form of human. community, genus, as a transition from “nature” to “culture”, required the replacement of biol., natural connections that united individuals in a herd, suprabiol., artificial. These last connections, like everything "cultural", i.e. artificial, does not arise by itself, i.e. "by nature". This requires def. human effort, and in this case it was aimed at creating shared time. Be in a joint V.K. means, first of all, to live in a single rhythm. Otherwise, no joint, i.e. coordinated activity. The first rituals were supposed to create exactly a single rhythm, and for this, all available means were used - human vocal cords, clapping, stamping, extracting sound from everything that could sound, as well as joint bodily movements (ritual dances) limited by the scope of the ritual. The purpose of all this was to prepare for future action outside the ritual, in everyday life, both emotionally and by developing a def. skills. On this basis, an image of a cyclic VK is formed, in which there is no movement “forward”, towards something “new”. There is a repetition of what has already happened, there is no clear distinction between the past, present and future, which are merged into concret. human experience. If there is no experience of VK, then there is no time as such, it is perceived as a kind of property, which a person owns together with other members of this collective. The idea of V.K. as something objective, existing independently of people, is absent. VC. is considered to be something spiritualized, qualitatively heterogeneous (for example, “happy” and “unhappy”), not preceding interpersonal. relations, events, things, but created by them and not able to exist in isolation from them. Space is an indispensable characteristic of temporal relations, and the unity of the temporal and spatial properties of what is happening is always implied. Gradually, the idea of “great time” is being formed, in which the present state of the world was created and which, precisely for this reason, becomes sacred. In other words, the past is subjected to sacralization.

To break this cycle, it was necessary to postulate the possibility of stopping, after which V.K. could start over again. This was done in Hebrew. culture, thanks to the Sabbath, which, being the point of an absolute break in V.K., provided the possibility of such a stop and, consequently, liberation from the power of both the past and the present. The future becomes dominant. The “pull” coming from the future no longer constitutes a cyclic, but a linear V.K., which means an understanding of V.K. as a story, as a prophetic word becoming flesh. Thus, history is not a gradual revelation of what was already ready-made in the c.-l. moment of the VK cycle, namely, the fulfillment of the promised, creation as the appearance of the new, which does not repeat the old, is unpredictable, once, and is revealed as the promise of God. In other words, history VC. becomes the arena of the deities. revelations, and only God can lead a person out of the unceasing circulation and grant him peace - the Sabbath. Then there is an opportunity to look at everything from the end of V.K. as states of the fullness of creation, and this makes all private beliefs and attachments relative. End of V.K. reveals the mortality of these beliefs and attachments, which inevitably forced the constitution of V.K. as a cycle (otherwise they could not be preserved as self-identical). The myths of the “eternal return”, bypassing death and eliminating it from the constitution of VK, hide everything that preceded the initial moment. Thus, in fact, creating a private relationship, they mask its fundamental fragmentation. Under the conditions of constitution of V.K. as a cyclical there can be no history, but only a set of “stories”, the course of which is directed from the “golden age” down the line until the restoration of the original. "fullness". The time of history, on the contrary, does not begin with private attachments (for example, the death of a cultural hero or the founding of Rome), but is located “beyond” any private past, beginning with the creation of Adam, but with his internal. tension is created by the activities of the prophets and the expectation of the Messiah. Thus, V.K. for the first time is recognized as potentially common to all human beings. kind. In order for it to become really general, it was necessary to go beyond that separate section. people, the life of which for the first time began to flow in history. VC. Otherwise, the history.V.K. nevertheless turns out to be private, local, and not universal. But outside of such a V.K. there were not only clans and the first sedentary cultures arranged according to the type of oriental despotisms. The unique culture of Ancient Greece created one more, fourth and last way of constituting a local VK, which was supposed to provide common Greek. unity, i.e. coordinated life in the “focal territory” (polises and islands). The ancient Greeks for the first time tried to eliminate the compulsion of VK by introducing “free time” or “leisure” into its composition. Forced V.K. means the need to serve people, spirits or gods. Ritual dances of the clan are not leisure, but a duty, and the temple worship of the East are the same duties. despot, Heb. Saturday and even the expectation of the Messiah. On the contrary, free time is the time during which a person is free from any obligations, not only to concret. people, but also before his "work", and, therefore, does not depend on the deities. and human. coercion. Leisure is time, to which the person himself “possesses”, while outside of it V.K. "owns" him, constantly putting forward before him decomp. imperatives. Thus, an element of play is introduced into culture, and the time of play is reversible, isolated from the seriousness and dangers of life's struggle. The game, in turn, is the essence of other Greek. school, which made it possible to introduce students into foreign communities and cultures through training, and creates a special type of joint V.K. The time of the game provides both the self-identity of the Greek. culture, and colonization, but this is an abstract time, incompatible with history, its one-time and concreteness. Compatibility V.K. is bought precisely at the price of making it abstract and therefore reversible.

A single joint V.K. could only be created by introducing all cultures into history. VC. But for this it was necessary to include the meaning-forming function of the end of time in the present. Dr. Heb. culture was only interested in the beginning of time and its end, but it was necessary to establish directly. the relation of each moment to the final meaning of V.K., i.e. make each moment a meeting of past and future. So that all local, particular forms of V.K. opened to meet each other, it was necessary to show that death is exactly the same imperative of the future as life. Christianity creates a single V.K. with the help of special mechanisms based on the death of Jesus Christ. It is this event that relativizes all previous calendar systems, providing the possibility of free movement from one rhythm of joint life to another: “...Sabbath for a man, and not a man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27). And this means the destruction of impenetrable boundaries between cultures, and that is why the apostle Paul calls Jesus Christ “the king of the ages” (1 Tim. 1:17). "Age" (eon) - this is the rhythm of living together, inherent in a separate local culture, and the doctrine of eons becomes a necessary element of Christ. concepts of V.K. But the aeon is a finite and therefore transient period of time. Christ. reckoning is not based on the transfer of dep. moments of V.k., but is made up of epochs, periods, eons, the unity and meaningfulness of which is determined on the basis of a single V.k. On the other hand, time can be dissected only having it previously as something whole, and only under this condition do many aeons form the fullness of time. This gives orientation in time, since now all zones open towards each other and obey the "aeon zone" that encloses them. As a result, firstly, the possibility of free change of both people and the world arises, and secondly, with all changes, the unity of the meaning of V.K. Therefore, the concept of history of Spengler and Toynbee, openly opposed to Christ. concepts of time, have it as their preliminary. conditions: analysis dep. cultures declared geometrically closed would not be possible without the “eon of eons” as the fullness of time. After all, it is precisely belonging to it that is implicitly attributed to the historian, only thanks to this and seeing the unclouded meaning of each local culture. That is why the evolution of ideas about V.K. can become the subject of a detailed cultural study. analysis based on an interdisciplinary approach.

However, Christ herself the concept of time, like all elements of culture, requires effort to maintain it. Therefore, it is not surprising that a side effect of the general process of secularization was the revitalization of the concepts of cyclical. VC. - both traditional and artificially constructed in the context of non-traditions. religious and quasi-religious. movements. Another feature of modern ideas about time is the identification of history with physicalist models of time, which lies in line with the naturalistic. vision of man and his world as ontologically autonomous. Devoid of deities. and human. meaning time is a characteristic manifestation of nihilism.

RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY FOR THE HUMANITIES

"Time in Culture"

1st year student

Faculty of Art History

Gurova O . H .

Scientific director

Asoyan Yu.A.

Moscow 2004

A matter of time now takes major areas modern knowledge, starting with philosophy, and ending with applied mathematics, however, not limited to them. Apparently, such an interest, first of all, is due to a passionate desire of a person to reduce time - that is, a category that is very difficult to understand, and even harder to subordinate, to real facts, that is, to replace the very problem of time with a question about the relationship of things. VN Muravyov gives the following definition to the concept of "Time" - if we consider it as a reality, then it is nothing but change and movement. The mastery of time is one of the main rational goals of man. Man creates certain phenomena and thus is the master of their time. All kinds of human activity can be combined into complex concept creative labor.

Based on the foregoing, the question can be raised: general concept it is possible to express the results of the transformation of the world by man? Such a concept exists, but, apparently, at present its definition has not yet been sufficiently formulated. The concept is culture. A world without culture is a world in which there are no results of human activity. A world with culture included in it, or even a world transformed into a certain culture, is a world with the imprint on it of the creative effort of man. Thus, cultural transformation is a form of time mastery.

Culture is the result of the creation of time, since every act that changes the world is such a creation. The formation of time is accomplished by affirming the duration of some values that resist the “corrosive” force of time. Interestingly, we can often see how a disappeared culture reappears in the same or new forms (for example, the Renaissance).

Thus, individual cultural achievements are islands of dry land in the changing ocean of time, and the increase in their appearance defeats this element and replaces it with organized time, consciously created by man. Of course, one should take into account the fact that, probably, 99.99% of the values, created by people either perish, or their influence is nullified by the destroying power of the blind stream. Nevertheless, firstly, since something has taken place, it means that the mathematical possibility of this exists in nature in the form of a certain combination of elements. Secondly, the fragility and insignificance (in a real, practical sense - this does not mean that the achievement had an objective low value, meaning, an impact on a universal human scale) of real changes must be attributed to the specific nature of the cultures that have hitherto been in humanity, including modern. For the most part, these cultures belong to the so-called "symbolic" - that is, they consist almost exclusively in the creation and transmission of certain records and formulas. Accordingly, these cultures care little about translating learned laws into practice. Such a concept of symbolic culture should be contrasted with the concept of real culture, in which the center of gravity lies in the work on the implementation of the existing cultural patterns in life.

The difference between the symbolic and real aspects of culture is important for the question of whether culture fulfills its main function of forming time. Part of the culture, of course, must consist of symbols, and their specific role as motivators and guides of action finds a place in culture and has a certain value. Such is the role of thought, expressed in philosophy and science, in general in knowledge. In every culture, philosophy and science serve more as tools for overcoming time than for overcoming itself. Similarly, the intuitive knowledge given by artistic perception creates projects and symbols in the field of artistic creation, and art, from this point of view, is a condition or tool for overcoming time.

As for the real types of human activity, they change the world in three main areas: in the field of creating life, creating new living or resurrecting the dead - let's conditionally call this area genetics; in the field of changing relationships between people and personality changes - the field of politics and ethics; and, finally, changes in the world in the form of transformation of material things - the area of production.

The first kind of real and cultural "doing" includes, first of all, the activity that creates new life through semi-conscious processes. This refers to the generation of new living beings by copulation of the sexes. Here the creative act cannot always be called conscious. Consciousness is brought into it in Lately development of science, actively working on artificial insemination and cloning. But, in any case, studies on this topic are not only not completed, but have not yet received ethical and political approval around the world, so for now they cannot be spoken of as a system.

The second real science, politics, contains a field of action aimed directly at changing the human personality and relations between people. Another part of the policy is public activity, where changes are made to public institutions. The sphere of influence of politics is extremely limited - it stops where the irrational physical nature of man begins. However, this area also creates conditions for time management - there is an opportunity for improvement of the person himself, as well as human relations and institutions.

The third kind of real cultural activities is production. Production is divided into activities that create tools of production, and activities that directly create new cultural objects. In both cases, but especially in the second, the ability of production to overcome time is manifested, since each created thing, while it exists, stops the time conquered by its creation.

Thus, the result of man's time-forming activity in history is the creation of culture. I would like to note once again that the main condition for mastering time through cultural activity is the combination of its two types: symbolic and real. The departure of art into the realm of pure aestheticism is just as detrimental to real culture as the departure of philosophy and science into pure theory. Just as production is blind without art, art is powerless without production that changes the world.

It should be noted that the above was not always so relevant for a person, and perhaps it was not an axiom. In the course of history, the sense of time has been different in different periods of the development of society. There is no doubt that the man of Antiquity felt time differently than the man of the Middle Ages did, who also saw it differently than our contemporary.

Now time is perceived as pure duration, an irreversible sequence of events from the past to the future. Time is objective, its quality is independent of the matter that fills it. Our time is chronological. According to A.Ya. Gurevich, a person is not born with a “sense of time”, his time concepts are always determined by the culture to which he belongs. The industrial and, moreover, the information society is characterized by a conscious attitude to time.

And in antiquity, and in the Middle Ages, and in the Renaissance, there were people who thought about the problem of the irreversibility of fast-flowing time, but by and large, never in previous eras time was valued as highly as it is now, and never occupied such a place in the mind of man.

In the mythological consciousness, this category does not exist as a pure abstraction, since the very thinking of people at the archaic stages of development was predominantly concrete, subject-sensory. Their consciousness embraces the world simultaneously in its synchronic integrity, and therefore it is timeless. Through the myth of the regeneration of time, archaic culture gave man the opportunity to overcome the transience and one-timeness of his life. Without separating himself from the generic social body, man cheated death.

It is interesting that a similar place in society is given to a person under totalitarianism - a person is a “cog” in a machine, there is no afterlife, but a person is not immortal - he is part of an eternal and nameless system. However, based on historical experience, one can be convinced that the totalitarian system is not stable and viable.

Returning to primitive thinking, in its system the past, present and future are located, as it were, on the same plane, in a certain sense they exist simultaneously. Ancient man saw both the past and the present stretching around him, mutually penetrating and explaining one another. Temporal orientation in primitive society extends only to the near future, the recent past and current activities, and everything lies beyond these limits, is perceived vaguely and poorly coordinated.

It is very important that for primitive consciousness time is not a neutral and objective category, as for modern man, but by powerful mysterious forces that control all things, the lives of people and even Gods. That's why primeval time emotionally and value-saturated - it can be good and evil, favorable for some types of activity and dangerous for others, there is sacred time, time of celebration, sacrifice. At this stage, linear time does not predominate in human consciousness, it is subject to the cyclical perception of life phenomena, because it is the repetitive time that underlies the mythological ideas that embody the worldview of primitive man.