Literary trends realism classicism romanticism. The main literary movements Classicism Sentimentalism Romanticism Realism Signs of a literary movement Unite writers of a certain historical
Literary and artistic trends, trends and schools
Renaissance literature
The countdown of the new time begins with the Renaissance (renaissanse French revival) - this is the name of the socio-political and cultural movement that originated in the XIV century. in Italy, and then spread to other European countries and flourished by the 15th-16th centuries. The art of the Renaissance opposed itself to the church's dogmatic worldview, declaring man the highest value, the crown of creation. Man is free and called to realize in earthly life the talents and abilities bestowed upon him by God and nature. The most important values proclaimed nature, love, beauty, art. During this era, there is a resurgence of interest in ancient heritage, genuine masterpieces of painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature are being created. The works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, Velazquez make up the golden fund of European art. Renaissance literature most fully expressed the humanistic ideals of the era. Her best achievements are presented in the lyrics of Petrarch (Italy), the book of short stories "The Decameron" by Boccaccio (Italy), the novel "The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha" by Cervantes (Spain), the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Francois Rabelais (France), the dramaturgy of Shakespeare (England). ) and Lope de Vega (Spain).Subsequent development of literature XVII-early XIX centuries associated with the literary and artistic trends of classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism.
Literature of classicism
Classicism(classicus nam. exemplary) - an artistic trend in European art of the 17th-18th centuries. The birthplace of classicism is France of the era of absolute monarchy, the artistic ideology of which was expressed by this direction.The main features of the art of classicism:
- imitation of ancient samples as the ideal of genuine art;
- the proclamation of the cult of reason and the rejection of the unbridled play of passions:
in the conflict of duty and feeling, duty always wins;
- strict observance of literary canons (rules): division of genres into high (tragedy, ode) and low (comedy, fable), observance of the rule of three unities (time, place and action), rational clarity and harmony of style, proportionality of composition;
- didactic, edifying works that preached the ideas of citizenship, patriotism, serving the monarchy.
The leading representatives of classicism in France were the tragedians Corneille and Racine, the fabulist Lafontaine, the comedian Moliere, the philosopher and writer Voltaire. In England prominent representative classicism - Jonathan Swift, author of the satirical novel Gulliver's Travels.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, in an era of important transformations for culture. The reforms of Peter I radically influenced literature. It acquires a secular character, becomes authorial, i.e. truly individual creativity. Many genres are borrowed from Europe (poem, tragedy, comedy, fable, later novel). This is the time of the formation of the system of Russian versification, theater and journalism. Such serious achievements became possible thanks to the energy and talents of Russian enlighteners, representatives of Russian classicism: M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin, D. Fonvizin, A. Sumarokov, I. Krylov and others.
Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism(French sentiment - feeling) - European literary movement late XVI II - early XIX centuries, proclaiming the feeling, and not the mind (as the classicists) the most important property human nature. Hence the increased interest in the inner spiritual life of a simple "natural" person. The surge of sensitivity was a reaction and protest against the rationalism and severity of classicism, which outlawed emotionality. However, relying on reason as a solution to all social and moral problems did not materialize, which predetermined the crisis of classicism. Sentimentalism poeticized love, friendship, family relationships, this is a truly democratic art, since the significance of a person was no longer determined by his social status but the ability to empathize, appreciate the beauty of nature, to be as close as possible to the natural beginnings of life. In the works of sentimentalists, the world of an idyll was often recreated - a harmonious and happy life. loving hearts in the lap of nature. Heroes sentimental novels often shed tears, talk a lot and in detail about their experiences. For the modern reader all this may seem naive and implausible, but the undoubted merit of the art of sentimentalism is the artistic discovery of important laws of a person’s inner life, the protection of his right to privacy, intimate life. Sentimentalists argued that man was created not only to serve the state and society - he has an undeniable right to personal happiness.The birthplace of sentimentalism is England, the novels of the writers Lawrence Stern "Sentimental Journey" and Samuel Richardson "Clarissa Harlow", "The Story of Sir Charles Grandison" will mark the emergence of a new literary trend in Europe and will become an object of admiration for readers, especially for readers, and for writers - role model. Less well-known works French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The New Eloise artistic autobiography"Confession". In Russia, the most famous sentimentalist writers were N. Karamzin - the author of "Poor Liza", A. Radishchev, who wrote "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow."
Romanticism
Romanticism(romanticisme French in this case- everything unusual, mysterious, fantastic) is one of the most influential artistic trends in world art, which was formed in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Romanticism arises from the growth of the individual principle in the sentimental world of culture, when a person is increasingly aware of his uniqueness, sovereignty from the outside world. Romantics proclaim the absolute intrinsic value of the individual; they opened a complex, contradictory world for art. human soul. Romanticism is characterized by an interest in strong vivid feelings, grandiose passions, in everything unusual: in the historical past, exoticism, the national coloring of the culture of peoples not spoiled by civilization. Favorite genres are short stories and poems, which are characterized by fantastic, exaggerated plot situations, composition complexity, unexpected ending. All attention is focused on the experiences of the protagonist, the unusual setting is important as a background that allows his restless soul to open up. The development of the genres of the historical novel, fantasy story, ballad is also the merit of the romantics.The romantic hero strives for an absolute ideal, which he seeks in nature, the heroic past, love. everyday life real world are seen by him as boring, prosaic, imperfect, i.e. completely inconsistent with his romantic ideas. From here arises a conflict between dream and reality, high ideals and vulgarity of the surrounding life. Hero romantic works lonely, not understood by others, and therefore either goes on a journey in the literal sense of the word, or lives in a world of imagination, fantasy, his own ideal ideas. Any intrusion into his personal space causes deep despondency or a feeling of protest.
Romanticism originates in Germany, in the work of the early Goethe (the novel in letters "The Sufferings of Young Werther"), Schiller (the dramas "Robbers", "Deceit and Love"), Hoffmann (the story "Little Tsakhes", the fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King") , Brothers Grimm (tales "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", "The Bremen Town Musicians"). The largest representatives of English romanticism - Byron (the poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage") and Shelley (the drama "Prometheus Freed") - these are poets who are passionate about the ideas of political struggle, the protection of the oppressed and the disadvantaged, and the upholding of individual freedom. Byron remained true to his poetic ideals until the end of his life, his death found him in the midst of the war for the independence of Greece. Following the Byronian ideal of a disappointed person with a tragic attitude was called "Byronism" and turned into a kind of fashion among the younger generation of that time, which was followed, for example, by Eugene Onegin, the hero of A. Pushkin's novel.
The Rise of Romanticism in Russia fell on the first third of the 19th century and is associated with the names of V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, K. Ryleev, V. Kuchelbeker, A. Odoevsky, E. Baratynsky, N. Gogol, F. Tyutchev. Russian romanticism reached its peak in the work of A.S. Pushkin, when he was in southern exile. Freedom, including from despotic political regimes, is one of the main themes of the romantic Pushkin; his “southern” poems are devoted to this: “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “ Bakhchisarai fountain"," Gypsies.
Another brilliant achievement of Russian romanticism is the early work of M. Lermontov. The lyrical hero of his poetry is a rebel, a rebel who enters the battle with fate. A striking example- the poem "Mtsyri".
The cycle of short stories "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka", which made N. Gogol a famous writer, is distinguished by an interest in folklore, in mysterious, mystical plots. In the 1840s, romanticism gradually fades into the background and gives way to realism.
But the traditions of romanticism remind of themselves in the future, including in the literature of the 20th century, in the literary trend of neo-romanticism (new romanticism). A. Grin's story "Scarlet Sails" will become his hallmark.
Realism
Realism(from lat. real, real) - one of the most significant areas in literature XIX-XX centuries, which is based on a realistic method of depicting reality. The task of this method is to depict life as it is, in forms and images that correspond to reality. Realism strives to cognize and reveal the whole variety of social, cultural-historical, moral-psychological processes and phenomena with their features and contradictions. The author has the right to cover any aspect of life without limiting themes, plots, artistic means.The realism of the 19th century creatively borrows and develops the achievements of earlier literary trends: classicism has an interest in socio-political, civil issues; in sentimentalism - the poeticization of the family, friendship, nature, the natural beginnings of life; romanticism has an in-depth psychologism, comprehension of the inner life of a person. Realism showed the close interaction of man with the environment, the impact of social conditions on the fate of people, he is interested in everyday life in all its manifestations. The hero of a realistic work is an ordinary person, a representative of his time and his environment. One of the most important principles of realism is the depiction of a typical hero in typical circumstances.
Russian realism is characterized by deep socio-philosophical problems, intense psychologism, enduring interest in the patterns of a person's inner life, the world of the family, home, and childhood. Favorite genres - novel, short story. The heyday of realism - the second half of the XIX century, which was reflected in the work of Russian and European classics.
Modernism
Modernism(moderne fr. newest) - a literary trend that developed in Europe and Russia at the beginning of the 20th century as a result of a revision of the philosophical foundations and creative principles realistic literature XIX century. The emergence of modernism was a reaction to the crisis of the era turn XIX-XX centuries, when the principle of reassessment of values was proclaimed.Modernists refuse realistic ways of explaining the surrounding reality and the person in it, turning to the sphere of the ideal, the mystical as the root cause of everything. Modernists are not interested in socio-political issues, the main thing for them is the soul, emotions, intuitive insights of the individual. The vocation of a human creator is to serve beauty, which, in their opinion, exists in its purest form only in art.
Modernism was internally heterogeneous, included various currents, poetic schools and groups. In Europe, this is symbolism, impressionism, stream of consciousness literature, expressionism.
In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, modernism clearly manifested itself in various fields of art, which is the reason for its unprecedented flourishing, later called " Silver Age» Russian culture. In literature, the poetic currents of symbolism and acmeism are associated with modernism.
Symbolism
Symbolism originates in France, in the poetry of Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, and then penetrates into other countries, including Russia.Russian Symbolists: I. Annensky D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, V. Bryusov - poets of the older generation; A. Blok, A. Bely, S. Solovyov - the so-called "young symbolists". Undoubtedly, the most significant figure of Russian symbolism was Alexander Blok, according to many, the first poet of that era.
Symbolism is based on the idea of "two worlds", formulated by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. In accordance with it, the real, visible world is considered only a distorted, secondary reflection of the world of spiritual beings.
Symbol (Greek symbolon, secret, symbol) is a special artistic image that embodies an abstract idea, it is inexhaustible in its content and allows you to intuitively comprehend the ideal world hidden from sensory perception.
Symbols have been used in culture since ancient times: star, river, sky, fire, candle, etc. - these and similar images have always evoked in a person ideas about the high and beautiful. However, in the work of the Symbolists, the symbol acquired a special status, so their poems were distinguished by complex imagery, encryption, sometimes excessive. As a result, this leads to a crisis of symbolism, which by 1910 ceases to exist as a literary movement.
Acmeists proclaim themselves the heirs of the Symbolists.
Acmeism
Acmeism(an act from Greek, the highest degree of something, an arrow) arises on the basis of the “Poets' Workshop”, which included N. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich and others Not rejecting the spiritual foundation of the world and human nature, the Acmeists at the same time sought to rediscover the beauty and significance of real earthly life. The main ideas of acmeism in the field of creativity: consistency artistic intent, harmony of composition, clarity and harmony of artistic style. An important place in the value system of acmeism was occupied by culture - the memory of mankind. In his work the best representatives acmeism: A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, N. Gumilyov - reached significant artistic heights and received widespread recognition public. The further existence and development of acmeism was forcibly interrupted by the events of the revolution and the civil war.avant-garde
avant-garde(avantgarde fr. advanced detachment) - a generalized name for experimental art movements, schools of the 20th century, united by the goal of creating a completely new art that has no connection with the old. The most famous of them are futurism, abstractionism, surrealism, dadaism, pop art, social art, etc.The main feature of avant-gardism is the denial of cultural and historical tradition, continuity, the experimental search for one's own paths in art. If the modernists emphasized continuity with cultural tradition, the avant-gardists treated it nihilistically. The slogan of the Russian avant-gardists is well-known: "Let's throw Pushkin off the ship of modernity!" In Russian poetry, various groups of futurists belonged to avant-gardism.
Futurism
Futurism(futurum lat. future) originated in Italy as a trend of new urban, technocratic art. In Russia, this trend declared itself in 1910 and consisted of several groups (ego-futurism, cubo-futurism, "Centrifuga"). V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, A. Kruchenykh, the Burliuk brothers, and others considered themselves Futurists. words (“slovony”), their “abstruse” language, were not afraid to be rude and anti-aesthetic. They were real anarchists and rebels, constantly shocking (irritating) the taste of the public, brought up on traditional artistic values. In essence, the program of futurism was destructive. Truly original and interesting poets were V. Mayakovsky and V. Khlebnikov, who enriched Russian poetry with their artistic discoveries, but this was more likely not due to futurism, but in spite of it.Conclusion on the issue:
Major literary movements
Summing up a brief overview of the main stages in the development of European and Russian literature, its main feature and main vector was the desire for diversity, enrichment of the possibilities of human creative self-expression. Verbal creativity in all ages has helped a person to learn about the world around him and express his ideas about it. The range of means that were used for this is amazing: from a clay tablet to handwritten book, from the invention of mass printing to modern audio, video, computer technologies.Today, thanks to the Internet, literature is changing and acquiring a completely new property. Anyone who has a computer and Internet access can become a writer. Appears before our eyes the new kind- network literature, which has its readers, its celebrities.
This is used by millions of people all over the planet, posting their texts to the world and getting an instant response from readers. The most popular and demanded national servers Proza.ru and Poetry.ru are non-commercial socially oriented projects, the mission of which is "to provide authors with the opportunity to publish their works on the Internet and find readers." As of June 25, 2009, 72,963 authors have published 93,6776 works on the Proza.ru portal; 218,618 authors have published 7,036,319 works on the Potihi.ru portal. The daily audience of these sites is approximately 30,000 visits. Of course, at its core, this is not literature, but rather graphomania - a painful attraction and predilection for intensified and fruitless writing, for verbose and empty, useless writing, but if among hundreds of thousands of such texts there are a few truly interesting and powerful ones, it's all the same as in a pile of slag prospectors would find an ingot of gold.
Literary directions (theoretical material)
Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.
The main features of literary movements :
· unite writers of a certain historical era;
· represent a special type of hero;
· express a certain worldview;
· choose characteristic themes and plots;
· use characteristic artistic techniques;
· work in certain genres;
· stand out in style artistic speech;
· put forward certain vital and aesthetic ideals.
Classicism
A trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on samples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national-patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Petrine era.
Distinctive features:
· the significance of themes and plots;
· violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;
· contrived images, schematic characters;
· edification of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative;
· the use of a language little understood by the common people;
· appeal to lofty heroic moral ideals;
· nationwide, civic orientation;
· the establishment of a hierarchy of genres: "high" (odes and tragedies), "medium" (elegies, historical writings, friendly letters) and "low" (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams);
· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of the "three unities": time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).
Representatives of classicism
Western European literature:
· P. Corneille - the tragedy "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna";
· J. Racine - the tragedy "Phaedra", "Midridat";
· Voltaire - the tragedy "Brutus", "Tancred";
· Molière - comedies "Tartuffe", "The tradesman in the nobility";
· N. Boileau - a treatise in verse " poetic art»;
· J. Lafontaine - "Fables".
Russian literature
· M. Lomonosov - the poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747";
· G. Derzhavin - ode to "Felitsa";
· A. Sumarokov - the tragedy "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor";
· Y. Knyazhnin - the tragedy "Dido", "Rosslav";
· D. Fonvizin - comedies "Foreman", "Undergrowth".
Sentimentalism
Direction in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant "human nature" was not reason, but feeling, and he sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings.
Distinctive features:
· disclosure human psychology;
· feeling is proclaimed the highest value;
· interest in the common man, in the world of his feelings, in nature, in everyday life;
· idealization of reality, subjective image of the world;
· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;
· the work is often written in the first person (the narrator is the author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.
Representatives of sentimentalism
· S. Richardson - the novel "Clarissa Harlow";
· - the novel "Julia, or New Eloise";
· - the novel "The suffering of young Werther".
Russian literature
· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;
· N. Karamzin - the story "Poor Lisa" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, "Bornholm Island";
· I. Bogdanovich - the poem "Darling";
· A. Radishchev (not all researchers attribute his work to sentimentalism, it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).
Romanticism
A trend in art and literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist's desire to oppose reality and dream.
Distinctive features:
· unusual, exotic in the depiction of events, landscape, people;
· rejection of the prosaic nature of real life; expression of the worldview, which is characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, the cult of freedom;
· striving for the ideal, perfection;
· strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;
· the image of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);
· contrast in the mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.
Representatives of romanticism
Western European literature
· J. Byron - poems "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", "Corsair";
· - drama "Egmont";
· I. Schiller - dramas "Robbers", "Cunning and Love";
· E. Hoffman - fantasy story"Golden Pot"; fairy tales "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of Fleas";
· P. Merimee - short story "Carmen";
· V. Hugo - historical novel "Notre Dame Cathedral";
· W. Scott - historical novel "Ivanhoe".
Russian literature
Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.
Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism gives great value social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
How certain direction formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
Painting
Nicholas Poussin. "Dance to the Music of Time" (1636).
Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784).
Poussin's coldly rational normativism aroused the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language to praise the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private customers preferred various options baroque and rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School fine arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
Sculpture
Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche(1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)
The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military prowess and wisdom statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zebes' Eagle" (1817).
Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.
Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.
Architecture
An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).
Charles Cameron. The project of decoration in the Adam's style of the green dining room of the Catherine Palace.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
A fragment of the ideal city of Arc-et-Senan (architect Ledoux).
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carruzel and Vendôme Column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
Valhalla - a repetition of the Athenian Parthenon by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.
Artists:
Romanticism
Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century.
Origin. Axiology
Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological ground was the crisis of Enlightenment rationalism, artistic search pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism, "Sturmerism"), the French Revolution, German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that, instead of science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment), puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a "paradigm" for all kinds cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to oppose the burgher, "philistine" world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, the atomization of society, a naive belief in linear progress - new system values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions, a call for the emancipation of a person’s personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire for synthesis and discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, rather quickly, the axiology of romanticism goes beyond art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.
Paradoxes of Romanticism
Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with the attraction to the impersonal, elemental, collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; game, understood as higher meaning creativity, - with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into "serious" life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This original duality of romanticism is reflected in his theory of irony, which raises to a principle the non-coincidence of conditional aspirations and values with the unconditional absolute as the goal. The main features of the romantic style include the playful element, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything peculiar and non-standard (moreover, the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was turned over); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as an ideal of romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; striving for the ultimate expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for an image over a concept, aspirations for possession, dynamics for statics; experiments in synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, the idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of everyday life, morality, politics.
Poetry as a Philosopher's Stone
In a polemic with the Enlightenment, romanticism formulates a program for rethinking and reforming philosophy in favor of artistic intuition, in which at first it is very close early stage German classical philosophy (cf. the theses of the “First Program of the System of German Idealism” - a sketch belonging to Schelling or Hegel: “The highest act of reason is an aesthetic act Poetry becomes the mentor of mankind; there will be no more philosophy We must create a new mythology, this mythology must be the mythology of reason "). Philosophy for Novalis and F. Schlegel - the main theorists of German romanticism - is a kind of intellectual magic, with the help of which a genius, mediating nature and spirit, creates an organic whole from disparate phenomena. However, the absolute of romance restored in this way is interpreted not as an unambiguous unitary system, but as a constantly self-reproducing process of creativity, in which the unity of chaos and cosmos is each time achieved by an unpredictably new formula. The emphasis on the playful unity of opposites in the absolute and the inalienability of the subject from the picture of the universe built by him makes the Romantics co-authors of the dialectical method created by German transcendentalism. Romantic “irony” with its method of “turning inside out” any positivity and the principle of denying the claims of any finite phenomenon to universal significance can also be considered a variety of dialectics. From the same attitude follows the preference of romanticism for fragmentation and “conciseness” as ways of philosophizing, which ultimately (along with criticism of the autonomy of reason) led to the demarcation of romanticism from German classical philosophy and allowed Hegel to define romanticism as the self-affirmation of subjectivity: "the true content of the romantic is the absolute inner life, and the corresponding form is spiritual subjectivity, comprehending its independence and freedom."
A new look at the inner world
The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, which was obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with the person’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols. romantic literature(a double, a shadow, an automaton, a doll, and finally, the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).
Understanding past eras
In search of cultural allies, romantic thought turns to antiquity and gives its anti-classical interpretation as an era of tragic beauty, sacrificial heroism and magical comprehension of nature, the era of Orpheus and Dionysus. In this respect, romanticism immediately preceded the revolution in the understanding of the Hellenic spirit carried out by Nietzsche. The Middle Ages could also be viewed as a congenial, "romantic" culture par excellence (Novalis), but in general, the Christian era (including modernity) was understood as a tragic split between the ideal and reality. , the inability to harmoniously reconcile with the finite world of this world. The romantic experience of evil as an inescapable universal force is closely connected with this intuition: on the one hand, romanticism saw here the depth of the problem, from which the Enlightenment, as a rule, simply turned away, on the other hand, romanticism, with its poetization of everything that exists, partially loses the ethical immunity of the Enlightenment against evil. The latter explains the ambiguous role of romanticism in the birth of the totalitarian mythology of the 20th century.
Impact on science
Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of man as a microcosm and introduced into it the idea of similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the development of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). Humanitarian sciences also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.
Romanticism and religion
In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speech on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of "dependence on the infinite." It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general trend of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis "Christianity, or Europe", 1799, programmatic for this trend).
Stages
The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tiek, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in the bosom of which the main philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; the emergence after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools of literary romanticism; publication of the book by J. de Stael "On Germany" (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism begins; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in the 1820s-30s; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their merging with both conservative and radical currents of "anti-burgher" European thought.
Romantic philosophers
The philosophical influence of romanticism is noticeable primarily in such an intellectual trend as the "philosophy of life." The works of Schopenhauer, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard, Carlyle, Wagner the theorist, Nietzsche can be considered a peculiar offshoot of romanticism. The historiosophy of Baader, the constructions of the “wise men” and Slavophiles in Russia, the philosophical and political conservatism of J. de Maistre and Bonald in France were also fed by the sentiments and intuitions of romanticism. Neo-romantic in nature was the philosophizing of the symbolists con. 19- beg. 20th century Close to romanticism is the interpretation of freedom and creativity in existentialism. The most important representatives of romanticism in art In the visual arts, romanticism was most clearly manifested in painting and drawing, less clearly in sculpture and architecture (for example, false Gothic). Most of the national schools of romanticism in the visual arts developed in the struggle against official academic classicism. Romanticism in music developed in the 1920s. 19th century under the influence of the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (an appeal to synthetic genres, primarily to opera and song, to instrumental miniature and musical programming). The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffmann, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mitskevich, E. Poe, G. Melville, M. Yu. Lermontov, V. F. Odoevsky; in music - F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin; in the fine arts - the painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner, in Russia - O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky. I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. S. Shchepkin, K. S. Stanislavsky
Classicism(from Latin "classicus" - exemplary) – one of the most important areas of art, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons and unities. The rules of classicism are designed to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. Classicism dates back to the end of the 16th century. It lasted until the beginning of the 19th century, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.
Romanticism - ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century. Born in Germany. Characterized by the affirmation of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong and rebellious passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.
Philosophy of Romanticism. The category of the sublime is central to romanticism and was formulated by Kant in his Critique of Judgment. Romanticism opposes the enlightenment idea of progress and the tendency to discard everything “obsolete and obsolete” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tale, in the common man and in returning to one’s roots and nature. Romantic works are characterized by the rejection of rationality and rigid literary rules.
Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste, complete freedom of creativity.
What is "surrealism" as a cultural phenomenon? Surrealism and psychoanalysis. The main techniques and ideology of surrealism, the ideas of surrealists about creativity. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern socio-cultural situation.
Surrealism - direction in art, formed by the beginning of the 1920s in France. Distinctive features: the use of allusions and paradoxical combinations of forms. Bosch is considered the founder of surrealism.
allusion – stylistic figure containing an indication, analogy or allusion to some literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or in colloquial speech.
The main concept of surrealism is surreality - the combination of dream and reality. Surrealists offered a controversial combination of naturalistic images through collage and technology " ready-made».
The term "ready-made" in the context of fine arts was first used by the French artist Marcel Duchamp in 1913. to designate their works, which are household items, withdrawn from the environment of their normal functioning and exhibited without any changes on art exhibition as works of art, i.e. moving an object from a non-artistic space to an artistic one. Duchamp's first "ready-made" - "Bicycle Wheel" (1913) "He took a household standard product, placed it in an unusual environment, so much so that its usual meaning disappeared in the new environment. With a new look and a new name, he created a new idea for the subject,” wrote Beatrice Wood.
For example, the poet Vera Pavlova rewrites a note from encyclopedic dictionary. This "borrowing" is called found poetry found poetry.
What is "automatic writing" and "unconscious creativity"? "Automatic writing" within the framework of aesthetic and psychiatric ideas. " Unconscious creativity as a creative principle. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern socio-cultural situation.
Main category of surreal aesthetics, main technique, the method of surrealism is automatic writing, i.e. creativity without mind control, when the speed of writing outstrips the speed of the author's reflection. The subconscious for the surrealists is the only source of truth.
Automatic writing is a high-speed writing "according to dictation" of the unconscious, unconscious writing down everything that comes to mind, fixing hallucinations, dreams, daydreams - any images of the imagination.
The main condition for automatic writing is writing speed and no corrections. Breton believed that automatic writing is not only a reification, verbalization of thought, but "thought-speaking".
The theory of automatic writing is connected with the special status of the poet: the poet as a neutral-outside registering apparatus.
It should be noted that often surrealistic works arose as a result of collective creativity.
1) orientation towards mythological creativity;
2) a consequence of automatism;
3) one of the conditions of work is “the interests of the group are above the interests of the individual” and one had to part with one’s own interests;
Formulating the principles of automatic writing, the theorists of surrealism relied on the teachings of the French intuitive philosopher Henri Bergson and on the psychoanalysis of Freud and Jung. The basis of automatic writing is the method of free association, first used by Freud in psychoanalytic sessions. The principle of psychoanalysis developed by Freud was based on the method of free association: when a person, starting from any word or image, expresses everything, indiscriminately, the thoughts that come to his mind. A surrealistic work is also born in the same way: it arises as a result of an arbitrary, from the point of view of logic, combination of various words and images in the text.
What is characteristic of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture? Social and ideological context of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture. Changing the status of "creator" and "creativity" in Russia during the "Silver Age".
During the "Silver Age" people are looking for new grounds for their spiritual and religious life.
The "Silver Age" is the age of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a great influence on the formation of the ideas of the Silver Age, believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since "death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space."
In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding it,” Solovyov believed.
Many people sought to break beyond everyday life in search of another reality. They chased after emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their sequence and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and filled with experiences. However, the consequence of this accumulation of experiences often turned out to be deep emptiness. Therefore, the fate of many people of the "Silver Age" is tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wanderings gave rise to a beautiful and original culture.
In literature, the realistic trend at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created their own the best works, the theme of which was ideological search intelligentsia and the "little" person with his daily problems and worries.
Russian literature of the early 20th century produced remarkable poetry. One of the directions of poetry of this time was symbolism. For the symbolists (A. Blok, Z. Gippius), who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign, and represented the connection between the two worlds. Representatives of this trend believed that "symbols" and " mystical contents works is the basis of new art.
Later, a new trend appeared in poetry, which was called "acmeism". This direction was formed in the circle "Workshop of poets". It included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam and others. They focused on the inherent value of reality. This direction of poetry is characterized by "beautiful clarity" of language, realism and accuracy of details, picturesque brightness of visual and expressive means.
In the 1910s, an avant-garde movement in poetry appeared, which was called "futurism". Futurists denied the social content of art, cultural traditions. They are characterized by anarchist rebellion. In their collective program collections (“Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, “Dead Moon”, etc.), they challenged the so-called “public taste and common sense”. Also, representatives of this trend (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) liked to experiment with the word.
How does the "psychology of perception", "psychology of thinking", "psychology of decision-making" differ from the "psychology of creativity"? Basic principles and sections of classical, or "functional psychology". Attempts to use the "psychology of perception" and similar areas of psychology to analyze creativity and art.
Psychology of perception - a branch of psychology that studies the process of forming a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception, the entire object is represented as a unit of interaction, in the aggregate of its properties.
Psychology of thinking- a branch of psychology that studies thinking as one of the mental processes aimed at solving problem situations, tasks and consisting in a generalized and indirect knowledge of reality. Thinking characterizes not the sensory (sensation, perception, representation), but the abstract-logical level cognitive activity person. With the help of mental processes: analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc., mental operations (actions) and forms of thinking, sensory-perceptual data are processed. The result of such processing is the reflection of reality in concepts, judgments, theories, etc. One of the most important issues in the psychology of thinking is the description of the content of mental activity. In modern psychology, thinking is considered as the highest mental process. The content of thinking includes:
1) thought processes (analysis, synthesis, abstraction);
2) mental actions, operations (mathematical operations - addition, subtraction);
3) forms of thinking (concept, judgment, conclusion);
4) a system of knowledge and concepts that are interconnected and used by the subject in solving problems;
5) generalized personal characteristics, actualized in the course of thinking (motivation).
Making decisions is recognized by almost all psychologists as the central moment of management. It is by this criterion that the main roles in the labor process are determined: the leader and the subordinate. Decision-making is a complex thought process that involves understanding the problem, setting an adequate goal and choosing the means to achieve it.
The psychology of managerial decision-making is characterized by a number of psychological patterns:
1) for the individual decision maker:
ability to make a decision in difficult conditions (limited time, high risk);
limited rationality (when subjective preferences limit the train of thought);
Irwin's phenomenon (overestimation of the significance and probability of obtaining the desired result, and underestimation of the undesirable result);
Analysis paralysis (when efforts to find a solution are concentrated at a certain stage for a long time);
Decision blindness (shift from the purpose of the decision to the means of achieving it);
· The phenomenon of the favorite alternative (when a method is used that has already achieved positive results).
2) For group decision making:
“grouping” (when people in a group have an individual decision deformed, and there is an illusion of innocence for a poor-quality decision);
unconditional faith in the norms of behavior professed by the group;
stereotyped view of a group member (characterized by open pressure on those who think individually in the group).
Psychology of creativity(eng. psychology of creative activity) - a branch of psychology that studies the creation by a person of a new, original in various fields of activity, primarily in science, technology, art, as well as in everyday life. Also, the psychology of creativity deals with the formation, development and structure of human potential.
Main sections psychology:
§ General psychology;
§ Social Psychology;
§ Age-related psychology;
§ Pedagogical psychology;
§ Labor psychology;
§ Psycholinguistics;
§ Differential psychology;
§ Psychometry;
§ Psychophysiology;
§ Psychology of management.
functional psychology- a direction in psychology that considers the mental life and behavior of a person from the point of view of his active and purposeful adaptation to environmental conditions. (The fundamental ideas of functional psychology belong to the evolutionary doctrine developed by Ch. Darwin and G. Spencer).
CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic direction that originated in the Renaissance and continued to develop until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). Classicism was seen as a movement oriented towards antique art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of the “three unities” (“the unity of time”, “the unity of place”, “the unity of action”) were obligatory, which became symbol three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, immutable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although classicism actively develops such prose genres, as aphorisms (maxims) and characters, of particular importance in it are dramatic works and the theater itself, capable of brightly and organically performing moralizing and entertaining functions at the same time.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category " good taste developed by the so-called "good society". The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; fr. - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism got its name after the publication of the novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimentalist writers is on the life of the human heart; the outer world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in emotional sphere and experiences of the individual. The sublime beginning, fundamental in the works of theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of touching, sympathy for one's neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated as early as the 18th century and enjoyed great reader success, had a significant impact on domestic writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its peak in the works of N.M. Karamzin ("Poor Liza", "Natalya, boyar daughter”, “Letters from a Russian traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravieva, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitriev.
ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant areas in European and American art of the late XVIII - first half of XIX century, which received worldwide distribution and opened many gifted artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be called the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, striving for a sublime, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between the ideal and reality, the feeling of a gap between them and at the same time the thirst for their reunion is the defining beginning of romantic art.
Romantics have always been attracted by fantastic plots and images, folk tales, parables, fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, heroic turning points historical eras, the fertile and bright world of wildlife, in which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed high and low, tragic and comic, real and fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - a historical novel, a lyrical epic poem, a fairy tale story. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change the prevailing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyrics. Artistic discoveries Romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.
In conditions other than Western European, Russian romanticism arose and developed, which became the main event in literary life in the 1820s. Its most important signs were the less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of the emergence of the romantic trend in Russia falls on 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a great influence on subsequent literature. The years of 1816-1825 became a time of enhanced development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delvig. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering the years 1826-1840, romanticism is most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this trend was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev, early works of N.V. Gogol. In the future, the impact of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and in the 20th century. Romantic traditions persist to this day.
REALISM(from late Latin - material, real) - the leading literary trend of the XIX-XX centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human person in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory have become a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the distinct manifestation of certain “non-realistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a full-fledged, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (albeit not necessarily) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged rather late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is undergoing constant changes and updates, while revealing a natural “survivability” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.
MODERNISM(from fr. - the newest) - aesthetic concept formed in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s and 1930s. Modernism arose as a result of a revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of artistic culture XIX century, which took place during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and trends as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, all of them are united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible change, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, which make it possible to speak of a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, and in dramaturgy, and in prose.
POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - commonly used in recent decades, but still has not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation of the term, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is a multi-valued and multi-level complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, influenced by national-historical, social, etc. circumstances, due to the specifics of world perception , attitude and assessment of the cognitive capabilities of a person, his place and role in the world around him. The emergence of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of the Second World War, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its essence, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he tries to resist. In this regard, the concepts that theorists use are not accidental. this direction: "world as chaos", "postmodern sensitivity", "world as text", "consciousness as text", "intertextuality", "authority crisis", "author's mask", "parodic mode of narration", fragmentary narration, meta-narrative and so on.
Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- vanguard) avant-garde- a generalizing name for currents in the world, primarily in European art, which arose on turn of XIX and XX centuries. The prominent representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:
Futurism - Alexei Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;
· Expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.
Dramaturgy
The pioneer of the avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and attitude are fixed in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hoffmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama is enriched with the techniques of the literature of the absurd. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrovich, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received their final expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, absurdist motifs were developed in their dramas by F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel.
