Message lovers of wisdom and the revival of the ancient heritage. Renaissance Painting and Science
Background of the Renaissance. In Italy in the XIV-XV centuries. Cities developed rapidly, industry flourished, and capitalist manufactory arose. Many cities were large shopping malls connecting Italy with the countries of Europe and the East. In the cities there were banks that conducted credit operations of international importance. Precisely because early capitalist relations first originated in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to take shape in this country, which was called the culture of the Renaissance.
For the early bourgeoisie and a wide range The medieval ideal of asceticism, the idea of human sinfulness, and ideas of passive submission to fate were unacceptable. In this social environment new ideas and values were formed, saturating the culture and giving it a secular, humanistic character.
The nature of the culture of the Renaissance. The term "Renaissance" (French - "Renaissance") indicates the connection of a new culture with antiquity. In Italian society, a deep interest in ancient culture arose with its joyful perception of the world around it and the harmonious combination of the mental and physical abilities of a person. Hence the attempt to resurrect a bygone culture worthy of eternal imitation. Renaissance figures tried in their writings to revive the style of the Latin writers of the "golden age" of Roman literature, especially Cicero. This was associated with the revival of classical Latin, which was subjected to distortion and barbarization during the Middle Ages. Humanists were looking for old manuscripts of ancient writers. So the writings of Cicero, Titus Livius, and others were found. Interest in Greek literature and the Greek language arose. Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), Chancellor of the Republic of Florence, translated into Latin language writings of Greek writers and philosophers - Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, etc. At this time, many Greek manuscripts were taken from Byzantium to Florence. Giovanni Boccaccio was the first Italian humanist who could read Homer in Greek.
But the culture of the Renaissance is not a simple copying of antiquity. Humanists processed and creatively assimilated the ancient heritage. The Italian Renaissance culture created its own distinctive style.
Soviet historiography considers the culture of the Renaissance as an early bourgeois culture that arose on the basis of a new, capitalist way of life that was taking shape in the depths of the feudal formation. Wide social circles took part in the creation of this culture, from the emerging bourgeoisie to the advanced part of the nobility. All this gave it a broad universal character. The emerging bourgeoisie itself was then an advanced class, therefore, in the struggle against the feudal worldview, it acted as a representative of "... the rest of society ... not any separate class, but the entire suffering humanity" ". The worldview of the leaders of the new culture, which was expressed in their philosophical, political, scientific and literary views, usually denoted by the term "humanism" (from humanus - "human"). Renaissance figures put in the center of attention a person, not a deity. A person was now considered as the blacksmith of his own happiness, the creator of all values, moving forward in defiance of fate and achieving success with the strength of his mind, firmness of spirit, activity, optimism. A person should enjoy nature, love, art, science, he stands in the center of the universe, the humanists believed. The representatives of the new ideology were alien to the idea of the sinfulness of man, in particular his body; on the contrary, harmony becomes recognized human soul and bodies.
The humanists did not oppose religion. But they sharply criticized and ridiculed the vices and ignorance of the clergy. They assigned God the role of the creator, who set the world in motion, but did not interfere in people's lives. The rejection of the church-religious and ascetic worldview, criticism of the Catholic clergy shook the foundations of religious morality and ethics;
humanistic culture was a secular culture. One of the humanists, Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457), in his treatise “On the Forgery of the Gift of Constantine,” refuted the legend that Emperor Constantine transferred secular power to the pope in Rome and throughout the west of the empire. He proved that the letter was fabricated in the papal office in the 8th century. This undermined the theocratic claims of the pope.
One of the most important features of the new ideology was individualism. Humanists argued that it is not generosity, not noble origin, but the personal qualities of an individual Person, his mind, dexterity, courage, enterprise and energy that ensure success in life. In the treatise On Nobility, Poggio Braccio-lini writes: “Nobility is, as it were, a radiance emanating from virtue; it gives brilliance to its owners, no matter what origin they may be ... Glory and nobility are measured not by other people's, but by their own merits ... "
I Dante Alighieri. This new great intellectual [movement] was attended by a constellation of eminent poets, writers
Qiaei, scientists and figures of various fields of art. The largest figure who stood on the verge of the Middle Ages and the time of humanism was the Florentine Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). His "Divine Comedy", like no other work of that time, reflected the worldview of the transitional period from the Middle Ages
|; to the Renaissance. The Divine Comedy was written in Italian(Tuscan dialect) and was an encyclopedia of knowledge of the Middle Ages. It convexly reflects the life of modern Dante Florence.
Dante had an exceptional power of representation, and his poem, especially its first part (hell), makes a tremendous impression. The poet descends into hell and goes through all its nine circles, led by Virgil, whom Dante calls his teacher, although he is a pagan. In hell, Dante observes the torment of sinners. In the first circle there is no torment - there are philosophers and scientists of antiquity; they are pagans and cannot go to heaven, but they do not deserve punishment. In the second circle, those who have tasted criminal love are tormented, but Dante sympathizes with them. In the third circle, the torment of merchants and usurers; in the fourth circle Dante, as a true Catholic, placed heretics; in the ninth - traitors Brutus, Cassius, Judas. For clerics who have bought their positions with money, including for popes, fire pits are prepared.
Political passions boil in hell just as they do in the streets of Florence. Dante gave a truthful and deep image of human destinies, experiences and aspirations. A stunning impression is made by the story of Dante's political opponent Ghibelline Farinato degli Uberti, who saved Florence from destruction, and although Dante placed him in hell, nevertheless portrayed him in hell as proud, strong and courageous man. The hero of Dante is Ulysses (Odysseus), suffering from hellish torments, always striving for "newness and truth."
Dante wrote a treatise "On the Monarchy", where he advocated the unification of Italy, which was to become the center of the revived Roman Empire.
Francesco Petrarch. The first humanist in Italy was Petrarch (1304-1374). He was born in Arezzo (Central Italy), in his youth he lived for some time in Avignon, where he was engaged in complete solitude in poetic creativity, then moved to Italy. Together with Boccaccio, Petrarch was the creator of the Italian literary language. In this language, he wrote those who received world recognition sonnets about his beloved Laura, in which there is a deep and wonderful feeling for the woman he loves. The sonnets of Petrarch have not lost their significance even today.
Petrarch had a sharply negative attitude towards the Roman curia, calling it "the focus of ignorance": "A stream of sorrows, an abode of wild malice, a temple of heresies and a school of delusions." He, like Dante, was worried about the fragmentation of Italy, because of which she was subjected to violence by powerful neighbors. Sorrow for the plight of his beautiful homeland sounds in the canzone "My Italy".
As a philosopher and thinker, Petrarch contrasted medieval scholasticism with the science of man, the knowledge of his inner world. Above all, he valued the personal qualities of a person, regardless of his origin. All people, he says, have the same red blood. But this first humanist was still characterized by mental turmoil, a discord between the traditional and the new system of views. Petrarch during his lifetime achieved the greatest recognition and fame. The Roman Senate crowned him with a laurel wreath; The Venetian Senate recognized him the greatest poet of his time.
Giovanni Boccaccio. A contemporary of Petrarch was Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), a staunch republican, cheerful, emotional nature. His humanistic outlook reflected in the Decameron, a collection of 100 short stories written in Italian, which emphasize the human right to happiness, to sensual joys, to love that knows no social barriers. A red thread runs through the idea that true nobility is determined not by nobility, but by valor. The plots of his short stories, written realistically and with humor, he took from the urban life of Florence. Boccaccio ridiculed and even branded the vices of the Catholic clergy, priests and monks, showing their ignorance and hypocrisy.
The church persecuted Boccaccio more than other humanists for sharp satire. His writings were included in the "list of banned books". Boccaccio owns the essay "On Glorious Women" and "Biography of Dante". Artworks Bock-366
caccio reflect the democratic, popular current in the early Italian Renaissance. The work of Petrarch and Boccaccio was widely recognized not only in Italy, translations of their works appeared in all countries of Western Europe.
History, and in particular the history of their people, aroused great interest among the figures of humanism. They gave a new periodization of history. Flavio Biondo (XV century) wrote a great work:
"History from the Decline of the Roman Empire", where he gave the periodization of world history: antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times. The humanists of Florence paid much attention to the history of their city, its rise and transformation into a republic. Leonardo Bruni wrote The History of Florence in 12 books. He considered man himself to be the driving force of the historical process.
Humanists attached great educational importance to history. Here is what the Italian humanist Marsilio Ficino wrote about the meaning of history: "... through the study of history, that which is mortal in itself becomes immortal, that which is absent becomes apparent."
Ethical teachings of the Italian humanists. The basic principles of the ethical teachings of the Italian humanists of the 15th century. are closely related to the new understanding of science not only as the embodiment of knowledge, but as a means of educating the human personality. From their point of view, this applied only to the humanities: rhetoric, philosophy, especially ethics, history, literature.
Coluccio Salutati (humanist and chancellor of the Republic of Florence) (1331-1406) called for an active fight against evil and vices in order to create a kingdom of goodness, mercy and happiness on earth. He emphasized the importance of free will.
The theory of "civil humanism" is associated with the name of another chancellor of Florence - Leonardo Bruni. In his works, he argued that democracy and freedom are a natural form of human community (meaning popolian democracy). He considered service to society, the motherland, the republic to be the most important moral duty of a person and argued that the highest happiness is activity for the benefit of the society in which a person lives. Leonardo Bruni was a prominent exponent of the ideas of civil humanism, but, in addition, he was a theorist of humanistic pedagogy, a supporter of women's education, and a propagandist of ancient philosophy.
The pedagogical ideas of the humanists were developed in his writings by Verdgerio. He emphasized the great educational role of history and philosophy, as well as grammar, poetics, music, arithmetic and geometry, natural science, medicine, law and theology. The goal of education is to create a person who is versatile, educated, creatively active and virtuous.
Art of the Early Renaissance. Art of the Early Italian Renaissance was represented new painting, sculpture and architecture.
The first major masters of painting were Giotto (1266-1337) and Masaccio (1401-1428) - Florentine artists. They painted on church-religious subjects (fresco painting-painting of walls inside temples), but gave their images realistic features. Giotto was the first artist to free Italian painting from the influence of Byzantine iconography. On the frescoes of Giotto, living people appear, moving, gesticulating, sometimes joyful, sometimes sad. The frescoes of Masaccio mark further development painting of a new type. He applied open in the XV century. the laws of perspective, which made it possible to make the depicted figures three-dimensional and place them in three-dimensional space.
A major sculptor of this period was Donatello (1386-1466). He thoroughly studied classical antique sculptures, trying to understand the principles of their creation. He owns portrait-type sculptures (he was a portrait painter), such as equestrian statue the condottiere of Guatemalata; a realistic figure is the statue of David who killed Goliath, and for the first time a naked body is presented in the statue.
Brunel-Lesky (1377-1445) was the greatest architect of the Early Renaissance. Combining elements of ancient Roman architecture with the Romanesque and Gothic tradition, he created his own independent architectural style. With the help of precise calculations, Brunelleschi resolved difficult task the erection of a dome on the famous Cathedral of Florence (Maria del Fiore). His architectural structures are characterized by lightness, harmony and proportionality of parts (Pazzi Chapel in Florence). Brunelleschi built not only temples and chapels, but also civil buildings, such as the orphanage in Florence, striking in its grace and harmony; Palazzo Pitti - a new type of palace instead of the castles of the Middle Ages. Brunelleschi also, like other architects, built fortifications and dams. Alberti, another major architect of the Renaissance, wrote "Ten Books on Architecture", where he outlined the scientific theory of the new architecture, created by him under the influence of the study of ancient monuments. In his other work, On Painting, he formulated the theory of the art of painting, also relying on the heritage of ancient artists.
Humanist movement and its centers. In the XV century. The humanist movement spread throughout Italy. Florence remained its main center, but, in addition to Florence, humanist circles appeared in Rome, Naples, Venice and Milan. The rulers of Florence adorned their city with beautiful buildings, in libraries they collected rare books and manuscripts. The reign of Lorenzo Medici, nicknamed the Magnificent, was distinguished by the greatest brilliance. He collected paintings, statues, books in the Medici Gardens; attracted writers, poets, artists, architects, sculptors, scientists to his court. Humanists were in high esteem in Italy, they were invited by the popes, magistrates and sovereigns of the Italian city-states to work as chancellors, secretaries, envoys, they were given orders for paintings and statues. Humanist writers enjoyed great fame. No wonder Boccaccio said: "It is not the names of great commanders that give glory to writers, on the contrary, the names of kings pass to posterity only thanks to writers."
At the beginning of the 15th century, there were huge changes in life and culture in Italy. Since the 12th century, the townspeople, merchants and artisans of Italy have waged a heroic struggle against feudal dependence. Developing trade and production, the townspeople gradually got richer, threw off the power of the feudal lords and organized free city-states. These free Italian cities became very powerful. Their citizens were proud of their conquests. The enormous wealth of the independent Italian cities caused them to flourish. The Italian bourgeoisie looked at the world with different eyes, they firmly believed in themselves, in their own strength. They were alien to the desire for suffering, humility, the rejection of all earthly joys that have been preached to them so far. The respect for the earthly person who enjoys the joys of life grew. People began to take an active attitude to life, eagerly explore the world, admire its beauty. During this period, various sciences are born, art develops.
In Italy, many monuments of the art of Ancient Rome have been preserved, so the ancient era was again revered as a model, ancient art became an object of admiration. Imitation of antiquity and gave reason to call this period in art - rebirth which means in French "Renaissance". Of course, this was not a blind, exact repetition of ancient art, it was already new art, but based on ancient models. Italian Renaissance divided into 3 stages: VIII - XIV centuries - Pre-Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance or Trecento- with it.); XV century - early Renaissance (Quattrocento); late 15th - early 16th century - high renaissance.
Archaeological excavations were carried out throughout Italy, looking for ancient monuments. The newly discovered statues, coins, utensils, weapons were carefully preserved and collected in museums specially created for this purpose. Artists studied on these samples of antiquity, drew them from life.
Trecento (Pre-Renaissance)
The true beginning of the Renaissance is associated with the name Giotto di Bondone (1266? - 1337). He is considered the founder of Renaissance painting. The Florentine Giotto has made great contributions to the history of art. He was a renewer, the ancestor of all European painting after the Middle Ages. Giotto breathed life into the gospel scenes, created images of real people, spiritualized, but earthly.
Giotto for the first time creates volumes with the help of chiaroscuro. He likes clean, light colors in cold shades: pinks, pearl grays, pale purples and light lilacs. The people in the frescoes of Giotto are stocky, with a heavy tread. They have large facial features, wide cheekbones, narrow eyes. His man is kind, considerate, serious.
Of the works of Giotto, the frescoes in the temples of Padua are best preserved. He presented the gospel stories here as existing, earthly, real. In these works, he tells about the problems that concern people at all times: about kindness and mutual understanding, deceit and betrayal, about depth, sorrow, meekness, humility and eternal all-consuming maternal love.
Instead of disjointed individual figures, as in medieval painting, Giotto managed to create a coherent story, a whole story about the complex inner life of the characters. Instead of the conventional golden background of the Byzantine mosaics, Giotto introduces a landscape background. And if in Byzantine painting the figures, as it were, hovered, hung in space, then the heroes of Giotto's frescoes found solid ground under their feet. Giotto's search for the transfer of space, the plasticity of figures, the expressiveness of movement made his art a whole stage in the Renaissance.
One of famous masters pre-revival -
Simone Martini (1284 - 1344).
In his painting, the features of northern Gothic were preserved: Martini's figures are elongated, and, as a rule, on a golden background. But Martini creates images with the help of chiaroscuro, gives them a natural movement, tries to convey a certain psychological state.
Quattrocento (early Renaissance)
Antiquity played a huge role in the formation of the secular culture of the early Renaissance. The Platonic Academy opens in Florence, the Laurentian library contains the richest collection of ancient manuscripts. The first art museums filled with statues, fragments of ancient architecture, marbles, coins, ceramics. In the Renaissance, the main centers of the artistic life of Italy stood out - Florence, Rome, Venice.
One of the largest centers, the birthplace of a new, realistic art was Florence. In the 15th century, many famous masters of the Renaissance lived, studied and worked there.
Early Renaissance architecture
The inhabitants of Florence had a high artistic culture, they actively participated in the creation of city monuments, and discussed options for the construction of beautiful buildings. Architects abandoned everything that resembled Gothic. Under the influence of antiquity, buildings crowned with a dome began to be considered the most perfect. The model here was the Roman Pantheon.
Florence is one of the most beautiful cities in the world, a city-museum. It has preserved its architecture from antiquity almost intact, its most beautiful buildings were mostly built during the Renaissance. Above the red brick roofs of the ancient buildings of Florence rises the huge building of the city's cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore, which is often referred to simply as Florence Cathedral. Its height reaches 107 meters. A magnificent dome, the harmony of which is emphasized by white stone ribs, crowns the cathedral. The dome is striking in size (its diameter is 43 m), it crowns the entire panorama of the city. The cathedral is visible from almost every street in Florence, clearly looming against the sky. This magnificent structure was built by the architect
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 - 1446).
The most magnificent and famous domed building of the Renaissance was St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It was built over 100 years. The creators of the original project were architects Bramante and Michelangelo.
Renaissance buildings are decorated with columns, pilasters, lion heads And "putti"(naked babies), plaster wreaths of flowers and fruits, leaves and many details, samples of which were found in the ruins of ancient Roman buildings. Back in fashion semicircular arch. Wealthy people began to build more beautiful and more comfortable houses. Instead of closely pressed to each other houses appeared luxurious palaces - palazzo.
Sculpture of the early Renaissance
In the 15th century, two famous sculptor -Donatello and Verrocchio.Donatello (1386? - 1466)- one of the first sculptors in Italy, who used the experience of ancient art. He created one of beautiful works early Renaissance - a statue of David.
According to biblical legend, a simple shepherd, the young man David defeated the giant Goliath, and thereby saved the inhabitants of Judea from enslavement and later became king. David was one of the favorite images of the Renaissance. He is depicted by the sculptor not as a humble saint from the Bible, but as young hero, winner, defender of the native city. In his sculpture, Donatello sings of man as the ideal of a beautiful heroic personality that arose in the Renaissance. David is crowned with the laurel wreath of the winner. Donatello was not afraid to introduce such a detail as a shepherd's hat - a sign of his simple origin. In the Middle Ages, the church forbade depicting a naked body, considering it a vessel of evil. Donatello was the first master who bravely violated this prohibition. He asserts by this that the human body is beautiful. The statue of David is the first round sculpture in that era.
Another beautiful sculpture by Donatello is also known - a statue of a warrior , commander of Gattamelata. It was the first equestrian monument of the Renaissance. Created 500 years ago, this monument still stands on a high pedestal, decorating the square in the city of Padua. For the first time, not a god, not a saint, not a noble and rich man was immortalized in sculpture, but a noble, brave and formidable warrior with a great soul, who deserved fame for great deeds. Dressed in antique armor, Gattemelata (this is his nickname, meaning "spotted cat") sits on a mighty horse in a calm, majestic pose. The features of the warrior's face emphasize a decisive, firm character.
Andrea Verrocchio (1436 -1488)
The most famous student of Donatello, who created the famous equestrian monument to the condottiere Colleoni, which was placed in Venice on the square near the church of San Giovanni. The main thing that strikes in the monument is the joint energetic movement of the horse and rider. The horse, as it were, rushes beyond the marble pedestal on which the monument is erected. Colleoni, standing up in the stirrups, stretched out, raising his head high, peers into the distance. A grimace of anger and tension froze on his face. In his posture, one feels a huge will, his face resembles a bird of prey. The image is filled with indestructible strength, energy, harsh authority.
Early Renaissance painting
The Renaissance also updated the art of painting. Painters have learned to correctly convey space, light and shadow, natural poses, various human feelings. It was the early Renaissance that was the time of accumulation of this knowledge and skills. The paintings of that time are imbued with light and high spirits. The background is often painted in light colors, while buildings and natural motifs are outlined with sharp lines, pure colors predominate. With naive diligence, all the details of the event are depicted, the characters are most often lined up and separated from the background by clear contours.
The painting of the early Renaissance only strived for perfection, however, thanks to its sincerity, it touches the soul of the viewer.
Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai Guidi, Known by the name Masaccio (1401 - 1428)
He is considered a follower of Giotto and the first master of painting of the early Renaissance. Masaccio lived only 28 years, but in such a short life he left a mark in art that is difficult to overestimate. He managed to complete the revolutionary transformations in painting begun by Giotto. His painting is distinguished by a dark and deep color. The people in the frescoes of Masaccio are much denser and more powerful than in the paintings of the Gothic era.
Masaccio was the first to correctly arrange objects in space, taking into account perspective; he began to depict people according to the laws of anatomy.
He knew how to link figures and landscape into a single action, to convey the life of nature and people in a dramatic and at the same time quite natural way - and this is the great merit of the painter.
This is one of the few easel easel works Masaccio commissioned to him in 1426 for the chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Pisa.
The Madonna sits on a throne built strictly according to the laws of Giotto's perspective. Her figure is written with confident and clear strokes, which creates the impression of a sculptural volume. Her face is calm and sad, her detached gaze is directed nowhere. Wrapped in a dark blue cloak, the Virgin Mary holds the Infant in her arms, whose golden figure stands out sharply against a dark background. The deep folds of the cloak allow the artist to play with chiaroscuro, which also creates a special visual effect. The baby eats black grapes - a symbol of communion. Impeccably drawn angels (the artist knew the human anatomy perfectly) surrounding the Madonna give the picture an additional emotional sound.
The only sash painted by Masaccio for a double-sided triptych. After the early death of the painter, the rest of the work, commissioned by Pope Martin V for the church of Santa Maria in Rome, was completed by the artist Masolino. It depicts two strict, monumentally executed figures of saints dressed in all red. Jerome holds an open book and a model of the basilica, a lion lies at his feet. John the Baptist is depicted in his usual form: he is barefoot and holds a cross in his hand. Both figures impress with anatomical precision and an almost sculptural sense of volume.
Interest in a person, admiration for his beauty were so great in the Renaissance that this led to the emergence of a new genre in painting - the portrait genre.
Pinturicchio (variant of Pinturicchio) (1454 - 1513) (Bernardino di Betto di Biagio)
A native of Perugia in Italy. For some time he painted miniatures, helped Pietro Perugino decorate with frescoes Sistine Chapel in Rome. Gained experience in the most complicated form decorative and monumental wall painting. A few years later, Pinturicchio became an independent muralist. He worked on frescoes in the Borgia apartments in the Vatican. He made wall paintings in the library of the cathedral in Siena.
The artist not only conveys a portrait resemblance, but seeks to reveal the inner state of a person. Before us is a teenage boy dressed in a strict dress of a city dweller. Pink colour, on the head a small blue cap. Brown hair falls to the shoulders, framing a delicate face, the attentive look of brown eyes is thoughtful, a little anxious. Behind the boy is an Umbrian landscape with thin trees, a silvery river, a sky turning pink on the horizon. The spring tenderness of nature, as an echo of the character of the hero, is in harmony with the poetry and charm of the hero.
The image of the boy is given in the foreground, large and occupies almost the entire plane of the picture, and the landscape is painted in the background and very small. This creates the impression of the significance of man, his dominance over the surrounding nature, asserts that man is the most beautiful creation on earth.
Here is presented the solemn departure of Cardinal Kapranik to the Basel Cathedral, which lasted almost 18 years, from 1431 to 1449, first in Basel, and then in Lausanne. The young Piccolomini was also in the retinue of the cardinal. In an elegant frame of a semicircular arch, a group of horsemen is presented, accompanied by pages and servants. The event is not so real and reliable, but chivalrously refined, almost fantastic. In the foreground, a beautiful rider on a white horse, in a luxurious dress and hat, turning his head, looks at the viewer - this is Aeneas Silvio. With pleasure the artist writes rich clothes, beautiful horses in velvet blankets. The elongated proportions of the figures, slightly mannered movements, slight tilts of the head are close to the court ideal. The life of Pope Pius II was full bright events, and Pinturicchio spoke about the meetings of the Pope with the King of Scotland, with Emperor Frederick III.
Filippo Lippi (1406 - 1469)
There were legends about Lippi's life. He himself was a monk, but left the monastery, became a wandering artist, abducted a nun from the monastery and died poisoned by the relatives of a young woman with whom he fell in love at an advanced age.
He painted images of the Madonna and Child, filled with living human feeling and experiences. In his paintings, he depicted many details: household items, environment, so his religious subjects were similar to secular paintings.
Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449 - 1494)
He painted not only religious subjects, but also scenes from the life of the Florentine nobility, their wealth and luxury, portraits of noble people.
Before us is the wife of a wealthy Florentine, a friend of the artist. In this not very beautiful, luxuriously dressed young woman, the artist expressed calmness, a moment of stillness and silence. The expression on the woman's face is cold, indifferent to everything, it seems that she foresees her imminent death: soon after painting the portrait, she will die. The woman is depicted in profile, which is typical for many portraits of that time.
Piero della Francesca (1415/1416 - 1492)
One of the most significant names in Italian painting of the 15th century. He completed numerous transformations in the methods of constructing the perspective of a picturesque space.
The picture is painted on a poplar board with egg tempera - obviously, by this time the artist had not yet mastered the secrets oil painting, in the technique of which his later works will be written.
The artist captured the manifestation of the mystery of the Holy Trinity at the time of the Baptism of Christ. The white dove, spreading its wings over the head of Christ, symbolizes the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Savior. The figures of Christ, John the Baptist and the angels standing next to them are painted in restrained colors.
His frescoes are solemn, sublime and majestic. Francesca believed in the high destiny of man and in his works people always do wonderful things. He used subtle, gentle transitions of colors. Francesca was the first to paint en plein air (in the air).
Culture and became the forerunner of the culture of modern times. And the Renaissance ended in the XVI-XVII centuries, since in each state it has its own start and end date.
Some general information
The distinctive features of the Renaissance are anthropocentrism, that is, an extraordinary interest in man as an individual and his activities. This also includes the secular nature of culture. In society, there is an interest in the culture of antiquity, something like its “revival” is taking place. Hence, in fact, the name of such an important period of time appeared. prominent figures The Renaissance can be called the immortal Michelangelo, and the ever-living Leonardo da Vinci.
The Renaissance (the main features are briefly described in our article) left its ideological and cultural imprint on all the states of Europe. But for each individual country there are individual historical boundaries of the era. And all - because of the unequal economic and social development.
There was a renaissance in Italy. Here, its first symptoms were noticeable in the XIII-XIV centuries. But the era was firmly rooted only in the 20s of the XV century. In Germany, France and other powers, the Renaissance arose much later. At the end of the XV century falls the highest flowering of the Renaissance. And already in the next century there is a crisis of ideas of this era. As a result of the incident, baroque and mannerism arise.
What was this era?
The time of the Renaissance is the period when the transition from the medieval to the bourgeois begins. This is precisely the stage in history when bourgeois-capitalist relations had not yet taken shape, and the social and feudal foundations had already been shaken.
During the Renaissance, a nation begins to take shape. At this time, the authorities of the kings, with the support of ordinary citizens, managed to overcome the power of the feudal nobles. Until that time, there were so-called associations, which were called states solely for geographical reasons. Now large monarchies are being born, the foundations of which are nationalities and historical destinies.
The Renaissance is characterized by the incredible development of trade relations between different countries. During this period, grandiose geographical discoveries are made. The Renaissance was the period when the foundations of modern scientific theories were laid. Thus, natural science appeared with its inventions and discoveries. The turning point for the described process is the discovery of printing. And it was it that immortalized the Renaissance as an era.
Other achievements of the Renaissance
The Renaissance is briefly characterized high achievements in the field of literature. Thanks to the advent of printing, it acquires the possibilities of distribution that it could not afford before. Ancient manuscripts that have risen like a phoenix from the ashes are beginning to be translated into different languages and republish. They travel the world as fast as ever. The learning process has become much easier due to the ability to reproduce a wide variety of scientific achievements and knowledge on paper.
The renewed interest in antiquity and the study of this period was reflected in religious mores and attitudes. Caluccio Salutatti, Chancellor of the Republic of Florence, announced that Holy Bible is nothing but poetry. During the Renaissance, the Holy Inquisition reaches its peak of activity. This was due to the fact that such a deep study of ancient works could undermine faith in Jesus Christ.
Early and High Renaissance
Features of the Renaissance are indicated by two periods of the Renaissance. So, scientists divide the whole era into Early Renaissance and the High Renaissance. The first period lasted 80 years - from 1420 to 1500. During this time, art has not yet completely got rid of the remnants of the past, but already tried to combine them with elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only much later and very slowly, thanks to the influence of radically changing conditions of culture and life, did artists abandon the foundations of the Middle Ages and, without a twinge of conscience, begin to use ancient art.
But it all happened in Italy. In other states, art has long been subordinated to the Gothic. Only at the end of the 15th century did the Renaissance begin in Spain and in the states located north of the Alps. Here early stage era continues until the middle of the XVI century. But nothing worthy of attention was produced during this period.
high renaissance
The second era of the Renaissance is considered the most grandiose time of its existence. The High Renaissance also lasted 80 years (1500-1580). During this period, Rome becomes the capital of art, not Florence. All this became possible due to the ascension to the throne of Pope Julius II. This was an ambitious man. He was also famous for his honesty and enterprise. It was he who attracted the best Italian artists to his court. Under Julius II and his successors, a great amount monumental sculptures, unsurpassed sculptures are molded, frescoes and paintings are painted, which today are considered masterpieces of world culture.
Renaissance Art Periods
The ideas of the Renaissance were embodied in the art of that period. But before talking about the art itself, I would like to highlight its main stages. So, they celebrate the Proto-Renaissance or the introductory period (approximately 1260-1320), Ducento (XIII century), Trecento (XIV century), as well as Quattrocento (XV century) and Cinquecento (XVI century).
Naturally, the sequence of century boundaries does not quite coincide with specific stages cultural development. The Proto-Renaissance marks the end of the 13th century, the Early Renaissance ends in the 1490s, and the High Renaissance ends before the 1530s. Only in Venice does it continue to exist until the end of the 16th century.
Renaissance literature
Renaissance literature is immortal names like Shakespeare, Ronsard, Petrarch, Du Bellay and others. It was during the Renaissance that poets demonstrated the victory of mankind over their own shortcomings and mistakes of the past. The most developed was the literature of Germany, France, England, Spain and Italy.
On English literature the poetry of Italy had a great influence and classical works. Thomas Wyatt introduces the sonnet form, which quickly gains popularity. Also worthy of attention is the sonnet created by the Earl of Surrey. The history of the literature of England is in many respects similar to the literature of France, although their resemblance minimum.
German Renaissance literature is known for the introduction of Schwanks during this period. These are interesting and funny stories, which were first created in the form of poetry, and later - in prose. They talked about life, about everyday life ordinary people. All this was served in a light, playful and casual style.
Literature of France, Spain and Italy
French literature of the Renaissance is marked by new trends. Margarita of Navarre became the patroness of the ideas of the reformation and humanism. In France, folk and urban creativity began to come to the fore.
The Renaissance (briefly it can be found in our article) in Spain is divided into several periods: the early Renaissance, the High Renaissance and the Baroque. Throughout the epoch, there has been an increased attention to culture and science in the country. In Spain, journalism is developing, typography appears. Some writers intertwine religious and secular motifs.
Representatives of the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They became the first poets who began to express lofty images and thoughts in a frank, common language. This innovation was received with a bang and spread to other countries.
Renaissance and art
The features of the Renaissance is that the human body has become the main source of inspiration and the subject of research for the artists of this time. Thus, emphasis was placed on the similarity of sculpture and painting with reality. The main features of the art of the Renaissance period include radiance, refined brushwork, the play of shadow and light, thoroughness in the process of work and complex compositions. For Renaissance artists, images from the Bible and myths were the main ones.
The similarity of a real person with his image on a particular canvas was so close that fictional character seemed alive. This cannot be said about the art of the 20th century.
The Renaissance (its main trends are briefly outlined above) perceived the human body as an endless beginning. Scientists and artists regularly improved their skills and knowledge by studying the bodies of individuals. At that time, the prevailing opinion was that man was created in the likeness and image of God. This statement reflected physical perfection. The main and important objects of Renaissance art were the gods.
Nature and beauty of the human body
Renaissance art great attention devoted to nature. A characteristic element of the landscapes was a varied and lush vegetation. Heaven blue-blue tint that pierced the sun's rays that penetrated through the clouds white color, were a great backdrop for the hovering creatures. Renaissance art worshiped beauty human body. This feature was manifested in the refined elements of the muscles and body. Difficult poses, facial expressions and gestures, a well-coordinated and clear color palette are characteristic of the work of sculptors and sculptors of the Renaissance period. These include Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt and others.
Lesson 26
Target: explain the importance of the ideas of humanism and the Renaissance for the development of European society.
Lesson type: discovery of new knowledge.
DURING THE CLASSES
Organizing time
Motivational-target stage
Everyone knows that it was Italy that was the heart of the entire Renaissance period. Great masters of the word, brush and philosophical thought appeared in each of the periods of the Renaissance. The culture of the Early Renaissance in Italy demonstrates the emergence of traditions that will develop in subsequent centuries, this period became the starting point, the beginning of a great era of development of creativity in Europe. Let's plunge into this era and get acquainted with the ideological inspirers of that time.
Knowledge update
Let's remember:
What is culture?
What is included in the concept of culture?
TOPIC OF THE LESSON: "The culture of the early Renaissance in Italy."
Guess what questions we will consider in our lesson.
Lesson plan
"Lovers of wisdom" and the revival of the ancient heritage.
The new doctrine of man and the upbringing of the new man.
The first humanists in literature and art.
Work on the topic of the lesson
In the middleXIVcentury in Italy is born new era- Revival. The first century and a half is called the early Renaissance.
Today you will act as explorers. Divide into groups, each of which will receive a task.
1 group. Working with the text of paragraph 1 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
Who called themselves "lovers of wisdom"?
How did they feel about the Middle Ages?
What did they call their time?
2 group. Working with the text of paragraph 2 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
What did medieval thinkers do?
What was the main thing in the writings of the new scientists?
What did they call their classes?
Who are humanists?
What is humanism?
What is the essence of the teachings of the humanists?
What is the ideal of the humanists?
group. Working with the text of paragraph 3 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
What did the humanists say?
What did humanists devote all their free time to?
What did the humanists say about nobility?
Presentation of group work.
Already in the era of the early Renaissance in Europe, the flowering of art began. Painting, sculpture and architecture of the Renaissance are imbued with the ideas of humanism. Let's get acquainted with the first humanists of Europe.
Student reports:
Francesco Petrarca
Giovanni Boccaccio
Sandro Botticelli
Summing up the lesson
What was new in the Renaissance? What are character traits this era?
Student responses
Let's check how well you have learned the studied material.
Survey using the site Plikers
A1. The Renaissance is considered to be the period
1) VIII-XI centuries.
2) XIV-XV centuries.
3) XIV-XVII centuries.
A2. Which country is the birthplace of the Renaissance?
France
2) Italy
3) Spain
A3. Why were “lovers of wisdom” also called humanists?
1) they called for mercy
2) they showed interest in a person, his earthly life
3) they protected heretics from the Inquisition
A4. The first humanist is called
1) Francesca Petrarch
2) Dante Alighieri
3) Giovanni Boccaccio
A5. Which of the following figures of the Middle Ages was a painter?
1) Sandra Botticelli
2) Bernard of Clairvaux
3) Thomas Aquinas
VI . Reflection
What new did you learn in the lesson?
What skills and abilities did you develop?
What new terms did you learn?
What did you like and dislike about the lesson?
Homework: paragraph 29, learn new words, dates, fill in a workbook
History lesson in grade 7 "Culture of the early Renaissance in Italy".
Topic study plan:
1. Connection of the Renaissance and Antiquity.
2. Humanism of the Renaissance.
3 Features of the culture of the early Renaissance.
4. The art of the early Renaissance.
Download:
Preview:
Subject. The culture of the early Renaissance in Italy.
Lesson Objectives:
Educational: the student will be able to reveal the concept of "culture of the early Renaissance", "humanists"; name the country where it originated and the reasons for the emergence of a new culture, the main cultural figures of this period; to determine the main features of the culture of the early Renaissance.
Developing: continue development of students' analytical thinking,ability to compare, generalize, draw conclusions
Educational: influence the feelings and emotions of the children through the demonstration of beautiful human creations to students, work in a group.
Equipment: multimedia projector, computer, texts for work, task cards.
Forms of organization of cognitive activity: individual, frontal, steam room, group.
Topic study plan:
1. Connection of the Renaissance and Antiquity.
2. Humanism of the Renaissance.
3 Features of the culture of the early Renaissance.
4. The art of the early Renaissance.
During the classes :
- Organizing time
- Checking the readiness of schoolchildren for the lesson.
- Organization of student attention.
II Theme and goal setting of the lesson
How do you understand the word "Resurrection"? What is the difference between birth and rebirth?
Look again at the topic of the lesson. What questions would you like answered on the topic?
Demonstration of ancient monuments
What can you say about these works of art
(antique, a person is depicted, beauty, strength, confidence)
Look at the illustrations in the textbook until ... .., find the same lovely images human? (They are not here)
Why not? What's happening?(The Roman Empire was conquered by the barbarians and people forgot the ancient culture)
So what kind of Renaissance will be discussed in the lesson?(revival ancient culture when a person was highly valued)
Since the 14th century, in the rich cities of Italythere are people who call themselves "lovers of wisdom", they considered ancient Greek culture ideal when science and art flourished, and people were valiant and wise. And then, they thought, the barbarians came, and ignorance and cruelty reigned. And now the lovers of wisdom wanted to revive it, and therefore the new era began to be called the Renaissance, and the period from antiquity to the Renaissance - the Middle Ages. But interest in ancient culture was not a simple copy. A new culture is being created!
3. Learning new things. What is special about the new culture?
1. Work with the text, compare ideas about the world and man in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance
Text
The culture of the early Renaissance in Italy.
The thinkers of the Middle Ages thought about God and the divine universe. They called their knowledge - "knowledge of the divine."
Since the 14th century, new scholars (they were called "lovers of wisdom") began to study not only the Bible and the works of the church fathers. They became more and more interested in the past and present of their people. The main thing in the writings of new scientists is an interest in man, in earthly life. They began to call themselves humanists (from lat. humanus - human).
In the Middle Ages, believers believed earthly life "stinking", and themselves insignificant and miserable.Human bodyonly a shell of an immortal soul, it should be ashamed, hidden from prying eyes.
Humanists sang of earthly existence, ordinary life with her joys and anxieties, they called her beautiful. Man is the best and main creation, the “crown of creation” of God.What should a person strive for?Humanists believed that a person can and should achieve greatness already in earthly life. How can a person achieve perfection? By effort of will and labor, a person can achieve perfection in everything: in physical strength and beauty, in the sciences, art, martial arts, etc. The Lord helps active people. The reward for a person, as the humanists taught, was not bliss in heaven, but glory among contemporaries and descendants.
In the Middle Ages role modela saint appeared (poor, beggar, renouncing property and earthly temptations, caring about the salvation of the soul). Humanists aroused the interest of contemporaries not in saints, but in real people. Strong, beautiful, active, intelligent people are admired by humanists.
In a feudal society"noble ", that is, the best, people were considered those who had noble ancestors. Humanists have declared that nobility does not depend on origin. It doesn't matter who you are by origin: the son of a prince or a shoemaker. Noble is he who has educated his soul by education and reflection on lofty subjects and how to act in life. Only such a person can achieve greatness and glory.
During the Renaissance, it became highly prized education . The number of literate and educated people who read a lot, traveled, spoke several languages, were interested in philosophy, history, art. Wealthy people invited scientists who knew Greek language to give a good education to their children.
Table Conversation
As they began to call people who considered life and man beautiful.(humanists).
2. Art early Renaissance (teacher's word, slides, assignments)
slide 1. Considered the founder of humanism famous poet Francesco Petrarch, who dreamed of the revival of the former glory of Rome. One day he saw in the church beautiful woman He fell in love with her immediately and loved her all his life. She died of the plague, never responding to the poet in return. Petrarch gave his beloved the name Lau/ra and dedicated many poems to her. He first called an earthly woman Madonna. He was crowned best poet Italy and lived at the courts of Italian rulers.
Work on an excerpt from Petrarch's sonnet (work in pairs)
Theme: love. Image: earth woman. The main idea: love is happiness and suffering.
slide 2 . Another founder of the Renaissance was a student of Petrarch - Giovanni Boccacho. He wrote a collection of short stories, The Decameron. In The Decameron, he vividly and fascinatingly showed the life and customs of various strata of Italian society and mercilessly ridiculed the hypocrisy, idleness and vanity of the clergy.
Slide 3. During the Renaissance, artists were very famous, they were invited by both Popes and rulers. Artists are interested a real man in his earthly life. The picturesque and sculptural portrait, individual or family, was widely used, where not gods, heroes and saints were depicted, but contemporaries from different classes.
One of the most remarkable painters of the Early Renaissance was the Florentine Sandro Botticelli. Most famous paintings masters - "Spring" and "The Birth of Venus", ... Madonnas
Exercise . Look at the works of Sandro Botticelli, what features of the Renaissance we see in them?
(antique plot, serenity, grace. Madonna has a thoughtful expression on her face with anxious and nervous excitement, like ordinary people.
IV. Consolidation of what was learned in the lesson.
Work in groups (the leader in the group distributes tasks so that everyone in the group has the opportunity to take part in the answer).
Exercise 1 .
The Book of Good Practices, written by a Florentine in the 14th century, gives a number of instructions to his contemporaries:
Who sleeps too long is wasting time.
Remember that time lost cannot be returned.
Be meticulous and careful in all your affairs.
Beware of laziness, like the devil himself or any other enemy, if you want to succeed.
Always work to gain.
2. In what ways does he propose to achieve it?
Task2.
In Florence in the 14th-15th centuries. trade in cloth was considered a noble occupation, and a wealthy merchant was considered a "signor", that is, they addressed him as a nobleman.
Think about how the new understanding of nobility differed from the knightly one?
Task3.
1. What is the purpose and meaning of life according to the humanist Alberti?
- "Man was born into the world not to sadly drag out his life in idleness, but then to strive for glorious and great deeds."
“Like a ship that should not rot in the harbor, but plow the sea, we strive to achieve a laudable and glorious goal with the help of labor.”
“Although the accumulation of wealth is not as glorious as other important deeds, one should not, however, condemn one who devotes himself to a cause that is very useful to the state and individual families.”
Task 4.
Answer only "yes" or "no" to the following statements:
- The Renaissance began in the 15th century.
- The new culture paid great attention to man, showed interest in life and nature.
- Humanists considered the goal of life not to serve God, but to work for the benefit of people.
- Francesco Petrarca was famous artist early Renaissance.
- Donatello was crowned with the title of the best poet in Italy and a laurel wreath.
- Painting and sculptural portraiture became widespread.
5. Bottom line
Was the lesson interesting and informative? What is interesting? What did you like?
What questions didn't you get answered?
What did not work in our lesson?
D.Z.
1. V. 2-6, in writing any of your choice
