Antique culture. general characteristics

The ancient culture of ancient Greece evolved over several centuries in a special state system- city-states. The differences between them have worn enough pronounced character- their citizens spoke different language dialects, used their own calendars and coins, revered their gods and heroes.

However, from the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., the period of the emergence and flourishing of the polis system, there are quite distinct features of the Greek archaic.

These include:

1 interactive, synthesizing character(interaction - interaction) of ancient Greek culture: it synthesized the achievements of diverse ancient cultures, avoiding blind imitation;

2 cosmologism, meaning that the Cosmos was the absolute of culture: it embodied the World, the Universe, order, opposing Chaos;

3 canonicity, with led to the observance of the canons (rules focused on achieving the ideal) in philosophy, art, construction, in the proportions of a harmonious human figure;

4 competitiveness as one of the features that characterized various areas the life of Greek society - artistic, sports, etc. The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BC;

5 dialectic, expressed in the unity of opposites (initially, the term "dialectic" meant the ability to conduct a conversation).

The formation and development of the culture of Greek policies (city-states) was based on achievements in the field of productive activity of the peoples of Ancient Greece - in the development of mining and metallurgy, construction equipment and architecture, ceramic and textile production, and the fleet.

With the fall of the policy (IV century BC), the decline of Greek culture begins, which, nevertheless, retained its main achievements, giving impetus to the development European culture generally.

Mythology. Greek mythology developed in the II millennium BC. e. At this time, the pantheon of gods, living on Mount Olympus and subject to the power of one god, finally took shape - Zeus"father of men and gods." Each Olympian deity was endowed with certain functions: Athena- the goddess of war, higher kinds of art, crafts, guardian of cities and countries; Hermes- god of trade; Artemis- goddess of the hunt; Aphrodite - goddess of love for beauty, etc.

The pantheon of gods was reproduced in architectural structures (Temple of Artemis, etc.). Humanoid images of the gods became the main form of development of the ancient art of Ancient Greece.
Religion. Of great importance in the ancient Greek religion were ideas about the afterlife. Lord realms of the dead was Hades, at whose feet is the dog Cerberus. The darkest part of Hades - Tartarus - the abyss, where the souls of especially guilty people languish. The Greeks had no idea about the sinfulness of man before God.

Philosophy. Philosophy occupies a special place in ancient Greek culture. Exactly Ancient Greece was the stage of socio-cultural development at which philosophy was born. Its origin, associated with the decomposition of the myth, was based on the comprehension and generalization scientific knowledge characteristic of that time, and the analysis of the world of everyday life. As a result, a distinctive feature of philosophy was formed - the desire for wisdom, for understanding the world and the place of man in it. In ancient Greece, well-known philosophical schools were formed: Milesian(VI century BC) and eleic(VI - V centuries BC). The names of ancient Greek philosophers - Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and others - entered the history of philosophical thought. Grandiose philosophical systems included the main worldview provisions, the doctrine of being and non-being, dialectics, the theory of knowledge, aesthetics, logic, the doctrine of the state, etc.

Ancient Greek philosophy was the initial basis for all subsequent development of Western European philosophy.

The science. In close interaction with philosophy, the natural-scientific views of the ancient Greeks developed. They were in character pre-science, in which knowledge was still included in the subject-practical activity of a person.

Ancient Greek science was unified, undivided, not divided into philosophy and natural science and its separate disciplines. The world was understood as a whole.

Ancient science immortalized itself in the history of spiritual culture by creating atomistics. The atomistic doctrine of Leucippus and Democritus served as the ideological and methodological basis for the development of science until the 19th century. "Physics" of Aristotle was devoted to the study of nature and laid the foundation for physical science.

In ancient Greece, they began to form and biological knowledge. The initial scientific ideas about the origin of living organisms were developed by Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Democritus. The greatest physician of antiquity was Hippocrates. A number of biological treatises were written by Aristotle.

At the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. history emerged as an independent genre of literature. The first historian of the ancient world is considered the "father of history" Herodotus, who devoted his works to descriptions of wars. In general, history, as a science, focused on the description of specific, single historical events.

Art culture. ancient greek literature - oldest of European literatures, at the origins of which (VIII century BC) are the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to the blind singer Homer. Lyricism and tragedy appear in ancient Greek literature.

Achieved a high level of development architecture(temples of Apollo, Artemis, Zeus, Acropolis of Athens), sculpture(statue of Zeus, Discobolus, Aphrodite of Cnidus), arose theater. The theater of Greece - the oldest in Europe, reached its peak in the 5th century BC. Dramaturgy and theater arose from rural festivals in honor of the god Dionysus, where solemn and sad odes were sung from which tragedy was born, as well as cheerful songs from which comedy was born. The theater was a state institution, so the state took over the organization of theatrical performances, during which all the affairs of the city were suspended.

In the archaic era, an order system for the construction of temples arose (the allocation of load-bearing and weighty parts), which were built in honor of the gods.

In general, ancient Greek artistic culture and art were guided by the ideals of the sublime and beautiful.

From the second half of the 4th c. BC e. a new period begins ancient Greek history and culture - Hellenistic period.

In a broad sense, the concept of "Hellenism" means a stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean from the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) to the conquest of these countries by Rome. In 86 BC the Romans conquered Athens, in 30 BC. - Egypt. 27 BC - date of birth of the Roman Empire.

Hellenistic culture was not uniform. The cultural life of various centers differed depending on the level of the economy, the development of social relations, the ratio ethnic groups. What they had in common was that ancient Greek art and literature, philosophy, science, and architecture served as classic examples of social economy and political development. The scientific literature associated with the names of Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy has become widespread. Outstanding discoveries have been made in the field of astronomy. So, in the III century. BC e. Aristarchus of Samos was the first in the history of science to create the heliocentric system of the world, which he reproduced in the 16th century. N. Copernicus. Immortal creations are bright - Venus de Milo, Laocoön, etc.

In the III century. BC e. literature was developed in new cultural centers, mainly in Alexandria, where there was one of best libraries- Alexandria.

Ancient Greece is the cradle of European civilization, all its achievements are basically connected with the ideas and images of ancient Greek culture. The culture of Ancient Greece contained the origins of all subsequent achievements of European culture in the field of philosophy, natural sciences, literature, and art. Many industries modern science grew up on the basis of the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers.

Introduction
1. Culture of Ancient Greece
1.1. Culture of Hellas in the XXX-XII centuries. BC.
1.2. The culture of the "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)
1.3. Culture of the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC)
1.4. Greek culture in the 5th century BC.
2. Culture of Ancient Rome
2.1. Early Rome (VIII-VI centuries BC)
2.2. Early Roman Republic (V-IV centuries BC)
2.3. The heyday of Roman culture of the era of the republic (III-I centuries BC)
2.4. The era of the early Roman Empire (27 BC - II century AD)
2.5. Culture of the Roman Empire in the I-II centuries.
2.6. Culture of the decline of the Roman Empire (III-V centuries AD)
Conclusion
List of used literature

Introduction

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word "antiquus" - ancient. It is customary to call them a special period in the development of Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their control. cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be accurately determined, but they largely coincide with the time of existence of the ancient states: from the XI-IX centuries. BC, the time of formation ancient society in Greece and before V AD. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

Common to the ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Their civilization was common with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of indisputable features and differences in the life of ancient societies.

The main, pivotal in ancient culture were religion and mythology. Mythology was for the ancient Greeks the content and form of their worldview, their worldview, it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and public life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Next, science and science should be singled out as core phenomena in ancient culture. artistic culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary, first of all, to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.

1. Culture of Ancient Greece

1.1. Culture of Hellas in the XXX-XII centuries. BC.

The original and multifaceted early Greek culture was formed in 3000-1200. BC. Various factors accelerated its movement. For example, the completed ethnogenesis Greek people strengthened the internal ties of the entire Greek-speaking world, despite frequent local clashes.

The creative activity of the Greeks of the Bronze Age was based on the development of a large stock of experimental knowledge. It is necessary, first of all, to note the level and volume of technological knowledge that allowed the population of Hellas to widely develop specialized handicraft production.

Pottery also testifies to the fluency in complex thermal processes carried out in furnaces of various designs.

The accumulation of technological knowledge and the progress of the skill of a wide range of ordinary workers, both in agriculture and in specialized and home crafts, were the basis of the intensive economic development of the country.

Architecture was distinguished by high achievements. Architectural monuments vividly reflect the existence of property inequality and testify to the emergence of early class monarchies.

During the XX-XII centuries. BC. the art of vase painting developed rapidly. The breadth of society's artistic demands was manifested in the close attention of art to man and his activities. At the same time, the artists did not forget about the transfer of the physical appearance of a person, reproducing naked figures in painting, sculpture, toreutics and glyptics. It is noteworthy that even in ordinary monuments of art one can notice respect for a person.

The literature of the early Greeks, like other peoples, went back to the traditions of the ancient folk art, which included fairy tales, fables, myths and songs. With the change in social conditions, the rapid development of folk epic poetry began, glorifying the deeds of the ancestors and heroes of each tribe.

Writing in the Greek culture of the XXII-XII centuries. BC. played a limited role. Like many peoples of the world, the inhabitants of Hellas, first of all, began to make pictorial notes, known already in the second half of the 3rd millennium. Each sign of this pictographic letter denoted a whole concept.

The religion of early Greece played big role in the dynamics of social thought of the Hellenes. Initially, the Greek religion, like any other primitive religion, reflects only the weakness of man in the face of those “forces” that in nature, later in society and in his own mind, interfere, as he thinks, with his actions and pose a threat to his existence, thus more terrible, that he does not understand where it comes from.

1.2. The culture of the "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)

The palace civilization of the Cretan-Mycenaean era left the historical stage under mysterious, still not fully clarified circumstances, approximately in late XII V. BC. The era of ancient civilization begins only after three and a half and even four centuries.

Archaeological research in recent years has made it possible to find out the true extent of the terrible catastrophe experienced by the Mycenaean civilization at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC, as well as trace the main stages of its decline in the subsequent period.

The main distinguishing feature of that period is the depressing poverty of material culture, behind which was hidden a sharp decline in the living standards of the bulk of the population of Greece and an equally sharp decline in the country's productive forces. The products of the Sub-Mycenaean potters that have come down to us make the most bleak impression. They are very rough in form, carelessly molded, lacking even elementary grace.

The total number of metal products that have come down from this period is extremely small. Large items, such as weapons, are extremely rare. Small crafts like brooches or rings predominate.

True, almost at the same time, the first iron products appeared in Greece. Scattered finds of bronze knives with iron inserts date back to the very beginning of the period.

Another distinctive feature of the Sub-Mycenaean period was a decisive break with the traditions of the Mycenaean era. The most common method of burial in the Mycenaean time in chamber tombs was supplanted by individual burials in box graves (cysts) or in simple pits.

The most important factor contributing to the eradication of the Mycenaean cultural traditions, of course, should be considered the sharply increased mobility of the bulk of the Greek population. Started in the first half of the 12th century. BC. the outflow of the population from the regions of the country most affected by the barbarian invasion also continues in the Sub-Mycenaean period.

If we try to extrapolate all these symptoms of cultural decline and regression into the sphere of socio-economic relations inaccessible to our direct observation, we will almost inevitably have to admit that in the XII-XI centuries. BC. Greek society was thrown far back, to the stage of the primitive communal system and, in essence, returned to the original line from which the formation of the Mycenaean civilization once began.

1.3. Culture of the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC)

One of the most important factors of Greek culture VIII-VI centuries. BC is considered to be a new writing system. The alphabetic script, partly borrowed from the Phoenicians, was more convenient than the ancient Mycenaean syllabary: it consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had a firmly established phonetic meaning. Unlike the syllabary, which was used mainly for keeping accounts and, perhaps, to some extent for compiling religious texts, the new writing system was a truly universal means of communication that could be used with equal success in business correspondence, and for recording lyrical poems or philosophical aphorisms. All this led to fast growth literacy among the population of Greek policies, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, the number of which is increasing as we approach the end of the archaic period.

Almost at the same time (the second half of the 8th century BC), such outstanding examples of monumental heroic epic like the Iliad and the Odyssey, from which the history of Greek literature begins.

Greek poetry of the post-Homeric time (7th-6th centuries BC) is distinguished by its extraordinary thematic richness and variety of forms and genres. Gets widespread and soon becomes the leading literary direction era, lyric poetry, in turn, is divided into several main genres: elegy, iambic, monodic, i.e. intended for solo performance, and choral lyrics.

While some Greek poets sought to comprehend in their poems the complex inner world of a person and find the best option for his relationship with the civil team of the policy, others no less persistently tried to penetrate into the structure human environment universe, and solve the mystery of its origin.

In the era of the Great Colonization, the traditional Greek religion did not meet the spiritual needs of contemporaries also because it was difficult to find an answer to the question of what awaits a person in his future life and whether it exists at all. Representatives of two closely related religious and philosophical teachings, the Orphics and the Pythagoreans, tried to solve this painful question in their own way. Both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans tried to correct and purify traditional beliefs Greeks, replacing them with a more refined, spiritually filled form of religion.

For the first time in the history of mankind, the Milesian thinkers tried to present the entire universe around them as a harmoniously arranged, self-developing and self-regulating system.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. Greek architects for the first time after a long break began to build monumental temple buildings from stone, limestone or marble.

The most widespread and accessible type of archaic Greek art was, of course, vase painting. In their work, aimed at the widest consumer, master vase painters depended much less than sculptors or architects on the canons consecrated by religion or the state. Therefore, their art was much more dynamic, diverse and quickly responded to all sorts of artistic discoveries and experiments.

1.4. Greek culture in the 5th century BC.

In the first half of the 5th c. BC. there are important changes in the religious ideology of the Greeks. Unfortunately, they are little known to us and are most often reflected in literary works, which makes it difficult to understand whether this phenomenon arose as a result of individual or group creativity or reflects a widespread idea. The rise of the classical polis, the victory over the Persians had important consequences for the popular outlook. Modern researchers note the growth of religiosity among the Greeks.

The development at the end of the Archaic period on the basis of the ancient peasant cult of the hope of immortality, which was previously considered to belong not to an individual, but to a number of successive generations, in Athens in the 5th century BC, when a person felt free from family ties and tradition, comes to the cult of personal immortality.

Religion is humanized, it becomes worldly. Since that time, the state and the gods form an inseparable whole. Religious feeling gives way to the patriotism and pride of citizens who can erect such magnificent monuments to their gods, which were the occasion for magnificent festivities and became the object of admiration of the whole world.

In the philosophy of the V century. BC. the leading direction was natural philosophy, which developed in Ionia in the previous century. Most prominent representatives elemental-materialistic natural philosophy of this time - Heraclitus of Ephesus, Anaxagoras and Empedocles.

Ancient Greek materialism reached its peak in the teachings of Leucippus and Democritus. Leucippus laid the foundations of atomistic philosophy. His student Democritus not only accepted the cosmological theory of his teacher, but expanded and refined it, creating a universal philosophical system.

5th century BC. can be considered the time of the birth of science as a special field of activity. However, ancient Greek science could preserve such a character only up to a certain level. The expansion of the sphere of knowledge, the increase in its sum, led not only to the branching off of natural philosophy of individual sciences, but also (sometimes) to conflict between them.

Significant changes that took place in Greek culture during the 5th century BC. BC, are clearly reflected in the literature. The beginning of the century sees the decline of choral lyrics - that genre of literature that dominated the archaic era; at the same time, Greek tragedy was born - the genre of literature most fully corresponding to the spirit of the classical polis.

According to the most common periodization of the history of Greek fine arts and architecture of the 5th century BC. BC. It is customary to divide into two large periods: the art of the early classics, or strict style, and the art of high, or developed, classics. The boundary between them runs approximately in the middle of the century, however, the boundaries in art are generally rather arbitrary, and the transition from one quality to another occurs gradually and in different areas art at different speeds. This observation is true not only for the boundary between early and high classics but also between archaic and early classical art.

Thus, the end of the V-IV centuries. BC. - the period of the turbulent spiritual life of Greece, the formation of the idealistic ideas of Socrates and Plato, which developed in the struggle against the materialistic philosophy of Democritus, and the emergence of the teachings of the Cynics.

2. Culture of Ancient Rome

2.1. Early Rome (VIII- VIcenturies BC.)

In the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. the territory of the Apennine Peninsula was inhabited by Italian indo-european tribes divided ethnically and linguistically into several groups. The formation of the early Roman culture was most influenced by the tribes of the Latins, who lived in the region of Latium (where the city of Rome arose).

The Etruscans were experienced farmers and skilled artisans. They produced a kind of "buccero" ceramics. . The vessels were fired to black, then polished and decorated with relief images of animals and birds. Etruscan artistic bronze casting was also famous. . Etruscan ceramics and various metal products were widely sold in Italy itself, Greece, Carthage and other places.

The heyday of Etruscan culture in Italy takes place in the 7th-5th centuries. BC. The level of development of the productive forces of the Etruscans for that time was very high. Their cities had a regular layout, paved streets, a good sewerage system, many temples on stone foundations. Almost all the achievements of the Etruscans in the construction business were subsequently borrowed by the Romans.

In general, despite numerous influences and borrowings, early Roman culture grew on local, Italic soil and was quite original.

2.2. Early Roman Republic (V- IVcenturies BC.)

The early Roman state acquired the main features of the policy. The Roman Republic was aristocratic and patrician.

Roman culture of the 5th-4th centuries. BC. formed and strengthened, absorbing various influences, primarily Etruscan and Greek.

There was a development of the Latin language and writing, literacy spread in Rome, rhetoric developed, large-scale construction was carried out. In the IV century. BC. in Rome, the custom of a three-syllable compound name took root (Gai Julius Caesar, Mark Lininius Krase, Publius Virgil Maron). Roman names consisted of personal (proper) , generic name and family name (nickname) . Starting from the IV century, BC. the cognomen began to be inherited and denote the name of the family in the genus to which the person belonged.

2.3. The heyday of Roman culture in the era of the republic (III- Icenturies BC.)

In the III-II centuries. BC Rome waged war already outside of Italy: first with Carthage, a strong state in North Africa. At the same time, Rome was at war with the Illyrians, Macedonia and the kingdom

The Roman state, having turned into a powerful slave-owning power of antiquity, was torn apart from within by sharp social and class contradictions. In Rome, there was a fierce struggle for power between representatives noble families, politicians and military leaders.

Against this eventful background, the further development of Roman culture took place. The socio-political and economic system of Rome gave rise to its own system of values, where military prowess, military exploits and the glory of the Roman name occupied the main place. Among the Romans, myths - stories about the gods - did not receive such development as among the Greeks, giving way to some extent to historical traditions, especially the history of Roman warriors.

A powerful cultural movement begins in Rome at the end of the 3rd century. BC. Its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, the Greek language and education. For young and noble Romans, it was obligatory to master everything that was taught in Greece. The need for educated people was met by importing educated Greek slaves. Numerous figures of Roman culture - prose writers, poets, philosophers, orators, lawyers, teachers, doctors, artists, architects, were overwhelmingly non-Romans. To get acquainted with the Greek culture, not only the nobility. But also common people Of great importance was the accumulation in Rome of paintings and statues taken from Greek cities, exhibited in squares and temples and served as models for Roman masters.

At the end of the III century. BC. in Rome, the Latin literary language is formed and, on its basis, epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appears, who were usually taken as models Greek tragedy and comedy.

From the middle of the II century. BC. The most important genre in prose is historical. Roman historical writings, as a rule, had a pronounced propagandistic character; Rome remained the starting point for them.

In the last century of the Roman Republic (I century BC), Gaius Sallust Crispus and Gaius Julius Caesar became famous for their historical works, which (among other historians) better reflected the acuteness of the political struggle in the era of civil wars, Sallust gave magnificent portraits of his contemporary Roman politicians.

Along with historical works, scientific, philosophical and rhetorical works occupied an important place in the Roman literature of the era of the Republic.

In II-I centuries. BC. various currents of Hellenistic philosophy became known in Rome. To familiarize the ancient Romans with them, the politician, famous orator and writer Mark Tullius Cicero (1st century BC) did a lot.

In the 1st century BC. in Rome, rhetoric, the art of political and judicial eloquence, reached its highest development, which was associated with the turbulent social life of the transitional era from the Republic to the Empire.

The most original achievement of the Roman fiction was a satire literary genre purely Roman origin.

Only a few survived from the Republican period of the history of Ancient Rome. architectural monuments. In construction, the Romans mainly used four architectural orders: Tuscan (borrowed from the Etruscans), Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples are reminiscent of Greek ones in their rectangular shape and use of porticoes, but unlike Greek ones, they were grander and. as a rule, they were erected on high podiums (rectangular platforms with stairs). In the V-IV century. BC. in Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. In the late Republican period, fired brick and marble were widely used. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread distribution of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture -

Very popular in Roman architecture were free-standing columns erected, for example, in honor of military victories.

A very characteristic type of Roman structures were arcades - a series of arches resting on pillars or columns. Arcades were used in the construction open galleries running along the wall of a building, such as a theater, as well as in aqueducts - multi-tiered stone bridges. inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city.

Arched and vaulted structures were also used in the construction of amphitheaters - the original Roman theaters, in which the seats were not located in a semicircle, as in Greek, but in an ellipse around the stage or arena.

A specific Roman type of structure was the triumphal arch, which was most widely used in the era of the Empire as a monument of military and imperial glory.

2.4. The era of the early Roman Empire (27 BC - II century AD)

During the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman culture experienced a brilliant flowering, its "golden age". The principate of Augustus, whose main slogans were: the restoration of the republic and the morals of the ancestors, the cessation of wars and unrest, was perceived by contemporaries as a long-awaited deliverance from civil strife and wars that shocked Roman society.

In the "age of Augustus" the synthesis of ancient, Greek and Roman culture was completed. Under the influence of the final assimilation and processing of the Hellenic heritage, literature and art reached a high level of perfection, and ancient culture was finally formed, which became an essential component of European culture.

The development of architecture (but only in metropolitan Rome) led to the emergence of wall paintings, best known from the excavations of houses in Pompeii in Italy. The frescoes depicted colorful paintings on mythological, historical, everyday subjects and resembled Greek ones. Greek designs were reproduced by sculptors. True, Roman sculpture was distinguished by greater realism in reproducing the features of the original, since Roman art was characterized by an interest in psychology. Such is the marble statue of Augustus Primaporta, created in the style of Polikleitos, but more majestic and closer to the original. The culture of the “age of Augustus” created the prerequisites for the all-round flourishing of Roman culture in the 1st-2nd centuries. AD

2.5. Culture of the Roman Empire in the I-II centuries.

Roman culture retained its splendor and splendor, and in some respects surpassed its former level. Never before has she shone with such a constellation of names: philosophers - Senka, Epithet, Marcus Aurelius, Sextus Empyrek, Dio Chrysostomos.

characteristic feature The cultural life of Rome in the era of the early Empire was that the natives of not only the city of Rome, but also all of Italy and especially the Roman provinces took an active part in its creation.

The epistolary genre was very popular in the early Roman Empire. Such, for example, are the letters of Senator Pliny the Younger to friends and the Emperor Trajan. The genre of the novel was new, but only one of the Roman novels has come down to us - "Metamorphoses" (or "The Golden Ass") of Apuleius (II century).

The outstanding achievements of Roman architecture also include triumphal arches, one-three- and five-span, which were erected in honor of the emperor. If the Greeks explained the military victory by the valor of all the soldiers, the Romans attributed it to the personal merits of the commander. The triumphal arch served as an expression of the highest honors to the emperor-commander.

In the II century. The first equestrian statues appear in Rome. Such is the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which still adorns the Capitoline Square.

One of the most remarkable Roman buildings are the terms (baths), which played a big role in the daily life of the Romans. Roman baths have passed long haul from republican simplicity to luxury and excesses of the imperial era. They belonged to both private individuals and the state, the latter were intended for public needs.

In the I-II centuries. rapid construction was going on not only in Rome, but also in other cities of Italy and in the provinces. Throughout the empire, you can find the remains of monumental buildings and monuments of that time: the great temple of Zeus in Athens, the amphitheater in Verona, the ports in Ostia and Herculaneum, the amphitheater in Pompeii. And in Mesopotamia, and in Egypt, and in Galia, and in Spain, traces of ancient, Greco-Roman architecture have been preserved: amphitheaters and circuses, baths and aqueducts, roads and bridges, arches and columns, temples and plastic compositions.

2.6. Culture during the decline of the Roman Empire (III- Vcenturies AD)

The events of the 3rd century in the Roman Empire received the name "crisis of the 3rd century" in science. Most of all, the crisis affected the political life of Rome: new civil wars, the "barbarization" of the Empire, the growing separatism of the provinces, the ever-increasing pressure on the empire of tribal unions of the Germans and other peoples, etc. In economic terms, by the middle of the III century. the empire fell into a state of complete ruin.

The crisis also affected culture. Almost lost interest in philosophy and science. Instead of philosophy, there is increasingly an appeal to religion, to various mystical cults and superstitions.

In the visual arts, almost the only remarkable phenomenon was the realistic sculptural portrait- one of the greatest achievements of Roman art in general. Having arisen in the Republican era (marble busts of Pompey, Caesar, Cicero, etc.), it reached its highest peak in the era of the Empire.

The cult of imperial power contributed to the creation of colossal, majestic structures. Late Roman art is symbolic - the statues of emperors embody inhuman greatness, they seem to be devoid of a body, life burns only in the eyes that reflect the soul.

After the death of Constantine (337) in Rome, the crisis of ancient orders sharply worsened again. The attacks of the barbarians on the borders of the empire intensified, the Romans lost almost all their provinces. Torn apart by internal contradictions, the Roman Empire, pressed on all sides by external enemies, was steadily moving towards its end. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. The capital of the western half remained the city of Rome, and the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (future Byzantium) became the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony Byzantium.

In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the vandals (hence the concept of vandalism). In the middle of the 5th century Only Italy remained under the rule of the emperor. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, deposed the infant emperor Romulus-Augustulus and sent the insignia of imperial dignity to Constantinople. This event is considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire.

What is punished by the Eastern Roman Empire, it did not die under the blows of the barbarians, but existed for almost a thousand more years. With the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient culture also perished. The history of the ancient civilizations of Asia, Africa and Europe allows us to trace the features and main stages in the development of the world culture of that time - from the early class and rather primitive cultures of the East - to the cultures of the ancient world that amaze with their harmony and perfection,

The culture of ancient civilizations had a huge impact on the subsequent cultural development of mankind. The diverse cultural values ​​developed by the ancient Egyptian and ancient Mesopotamian civilizations were accepted, comprehended and creatively processed by later societies, primarily by ancient Greece and Rome. In turn, the ancient world and its culture formed the basis of European civilization, which periodically turned to the ideas and motives of the Greco-Roman cultural heritage. Outstanding astronomers of the Middle Ages - Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler - relied on the works of Aristarchus of Samos and his theory of the revolution of the Earth and planets around the Sun. The Pythagorean theorem, the geometry of Euclid, the law of Archimedes became the basis of school education in feudal Europe.

Christianity, having absorbed the values ​​of ancient culture, has become the leading world religion.

Roman law formed the basis of all systems of law in Western European states.

Modern types and genres of literature also date back to antiquity. She was constantly contacted European theater, drama and literature.

Conclusion

Antique culture is a unique phenomenon that gave general cultural values ​​in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose lives practically fit into classical period the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations of European civilization and created images to follow for millennia to come. The distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before the peoples imitate the Greeks, build a culture according to the patterns they created.

The culture of Ancient Rome, in many respects the successor of the ancient traditions of Greece, is distinguished by religious restraint, internal severity and external expediency. The practicality of the Romans found a worthy expression in urban planning, politics, jurisprudence, and military art. The culture of Ancient Rome largely determined the culture of subsequent eras in Western Europe.

List of used literature

1. Kumanetsky K. History of culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. - M., 1990.
2. Philosophy: Textbook for universities / Under the general. ed. V. V. Mironova. — M.: Norma, 2005.
3. World Art Culture: Educational Edition / Ed. L.Yu. Vasilevskaya, O.V. Divnenko. - M .: Center, 1996.
4. Lessons of Ancient Culture: Textbook / Miretskaya N.V., Miretskaya E.V. - Obninsk: Title, 1996.
5. Zeller E. ancient philosophy. - SPb., 1996.
6. Chanyshev N.A. Philosophy of the Ancient World: Textbook for universities. - M .: Higher school, 2001.

Antique culture: core values

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to call them a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be accurately determined, but they largely coincide with the time of existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th-9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and before V AD. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

Common to ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Their civilization was common with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of indisputable features and differences in the life of ancient societies. Religion and mythology were the main, pivotal in ancient culture. Mythology was for the ancient Greeks the content and form of their worldview, their worldview, it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and social life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Next, science and artistic culture should be singled out as pivotal phenomena in ancient culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary first of all to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.

Ancient (or ancient) Greece was the cradle of European civilization and culture. It was here that those material, spiritual, aesthetic values ​​were laid, which, to one degree or another, found their development in almost all European peoples.

The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural epochs:

Aegean or Crete-Mycenaean (III - II millennium BC),

Homeric (XI - IX centuries BC),

Archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC),

Classical (V - IV centuries BC),

Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - the middle of the 1st centuries BC).

The culture of ancient Greece reached its greatest flourishing in the classical period.

The Greek religion took shape in the Aegean era and undoubtedly experienced the influence of the Cretan-Mycenaean cults with their female deities. Like all ancient peoples, the Greeks had local communal cults, patron gods of individual city-states, and agricultural gods. But already in ancient times, there was a tendency for the absorption of local gods by the great gods of Greece - the Olympians. This trend reached its final conclusion in the Macedonian era and was a reflection of the cultural, political and economic unification of the Greek cities. But already in the Homeric era, the cultural commonality of the Greeks was clearly realized by them, which was reflected in the veneration of the common Greek gods. Epic creativity and its creators, the Aeds, played a significant role in the design of the pantheon. In this sense, the old saying that "Homer created the gods of Greece" reflects some kind of historical reality.

The question of the origin of the great gods of the Olympian pantheon is extremely difficult. The images of these gods are very complex, and each of them has gone through a long evolution. The main gods of the Greek pantheon are: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Artemis, Apollo, Hermes, Dionysus, Asclepius, Pan, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia. A characteristic feature of the ancient Greek religion was anthropomorphism - the deification of man, the idea of ​​the gods as strong, beautiful people who are immortal and possess eternal youth. According to the Greeks, the gods lived on Mount Olympus, located on the border of Thessaly and Macedonia.

The forms of worship among the Greeks were comparatively simple. The most common part of the cult was sacrifice. Other elements of the cult were the laying of wreaths on the altars, the decoration of the statues of the gods, their washing, solemn processions, the singing of sacred hymns and prayers, and sometimes religious dances. The administration of a public cult was regarded as a matter of national importance. In addition to the public cult, there was also a private, domestic cult, its more modest rites were performed by the heads of families and clans. The priesthood in Greece was not a special corporation or a closed estate. Priests were simply considered servants at temples; in some cases they were engaged in divination, divination and healing. The position of priest was honorary, but did not give direct power, since often civil officials led the official cult. The Greek policies in this respect were very different from the eastern despotic states with their dominance of the priesthood.

The next dominant Greek culture is mythology. Greek mythology is not only and not so much the world of religious ideas, it is the world of the Greeks in general, it is a complex and extensive whole, which, along with myths proper, also includes historical legends and traditions, fairy tales, literary short stories, free variations on mythological themes. But since these diverse elements are difficult to separate from each other, this broadly understood mythology must be considered as a whole.

Among the myths, a deeply archaic layer of totemic myths about Hyacinth, Narcissus, Daphne, Aedon, etc. is found. Agricultural myths about Demeter and Persephone, about Triptolemus and Iakh, about Dionysus are very characteristic - they personified the sowing and germination of grain and the ritual practice of landowners. Important the meaning belonged to the mythological personifications of the elements of earthly nature.

The Greeks peopled all nature with divine beings: dryads, nymphs, goat-footed satyrs lived in the groves; in the sea - naiads and sirens (birds with women's heads). Myths are alive and colorful, reflecting the historical change of cults: about the struggle between generations of gods. about the overthrow of his father Uranus by Kronos, about eating his own children and, finally, about the victory over him of his son Zeus.

The anthropological motif is almost absent in Greek mythology. It does not give a clear answer to the question of the origin of humans. According to one myth, the titan Prometheus was the creator of man. In any case, it is characteristic that in Greek mythology the gods do not act as the creators of the world and man.

But if the idea of ​​a god - the creator was alien to the mythology of the Greeks, then the images cultural heroes occupied a prominent place in it. The gods, titans and demigod-heroes, who, according to the Greeks, came from the marriages of gods with people, act as cultural heroes. Especially famous and revered was Hercules, who performed 12 labors. This is the image of a noble hero fighting evil and defeating it. The titan Prometheus brought blessed fire to people, gave them reason, knowledge, which incurred the wrath of Zeus and underwent a terrible thousand-year execution, from which Hercules freed him many years later. The goddess Athena was credited with introducing the culture of the olive tree; Demeter - cereals; Dionysus - viticulture and winemaking; Hermes - the invention of measures and weights, numbers and writing; Apollonus - teaching people poetry and music and other arts.

Close to the images of cultural heroes and sometimes indistinguishable from them

semi-legendary - semi-historical figures of legislators and organizers of cities, great singers, poets and artists. Such is the image of Homer, the legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. There is a huge literature on the Homeric question, which can be divided into three main groups:

Theories of the folk epic;

Synthetic theories (one person only collected, processed the folk epic).

So, Greek mythology, with all the complexity and diversity of its elements, has one feature that still makes such a strong impression on the listener and reader - high artistry and humanism of images.

In the question of ancient slavery, an important role is played by the works of such ancient authorities as Aristotle and Plato, as well as arguments about the universal slavery of people and gods by the rhetorician Libanius, who lived in the 6th century AD. The presence and naturalness of slavery in the life of antiquity led to the idea of ​​cosmic slavery, since everything in space is arranged in such a way that one, of course, obeys the other.

In the times of the communal-tribal system, kinship relations arose by themselves in a natural way and economic relations were based on them. The transition to slavery gave rise to a powerful division of labor; mental and physical. This led to the need to mentally regulate physical work, that is, to control the slaves. At the same time, there was a need for a deeper understanding of the world and its laws than mythology. This was no longer a simple transfer of kinship relations to all nature and the whole world, but also its complex interpretation, that is, philosophy.

One of the most remarkable phenomena of ancient Greek culture is the theater. It arose on the basis of folk songs and dances during the holidays in honor of the god Dionysus. From the ritual songs that were sung while dressed in goat skins, tragedy was born (tragos - a goat, ode - a song); comedy was born from mischievous and cheerful songs.

Theatrical performances were considered a school of education, and the state paid great attention to them. Performances were held several times a year on major holidays and continued for several days in a row. 3 tragedies and 2 comedies were staged. They watched from morning to evening, and so that all residents could visit the theater, special theatrical money was issued from the treasury.

During the heyday of Greek culture (VI - V centuries BC), the most outstanding Greek tragic poets lived and worked in Athens, classics of not only Greek, but also world literature: Aeschylus, who is rightfully called the father of tragedy for his immortal works ("Chained Prometheus", "Persians"); Sophocles, who created the tragedy Oedipus Rex, Electra, and others; Euripdes is the author of Medea, Hippolytus, Iphigenia in Aulis. A classic in Greek comedy is Aristophanes, who wrote comedies: "Peace", "Women in the People's Assembly", "Horsemen", etc.

ancient greek art firmly entrenched in artistic development subsequent times. Its elements live in the present. The leading architectural structures of classical Greece were temples, theaters, and public buildings. The main architectural structure is the temple. The most famous examples of Greek architecture are the Parthenon and Erechtheion temples that have survived to our time in the Athenian acropolis. In ancient Greek architecture, three architectural styles were successively replaced: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. A distinctive feature of these styles is the shape of the columns - an indispensable attribute of ancient Greek structures.

Greek sculpture was originally inferior to sculpture ancient East. But from the 5th c. BC. reached unprecedented heights. Not only the figure and face are transmitted, but also the movement and even the feelings of the people depicted. Sculptors such as Miron, Polikleitos, Phidias, Praxiteles, Skopas, Lysippus enjoyed special fame and glory.

Painting was widespread in ancient Greece in the form of frescoes and mosaics that adorn temples and buildings, but they have hardly survived to our time. The famous Greek black-figure and red-figure vases are examples of preserved paintings.

Hellenism (the Hellenistic era of the III - II centuries BC) is usually considered primarily as cultural phenomenon, as the spread of Greek culture in the countries conquered by Macedonia. The culture of the Hellenistic world was complex and diverse. She was a synthesis different combinations Greek culture and culture of the countries of the Near and Middle East. Hellenistic culture is characterized by its Greek design and deep local traditions. During this period, the common Greek language, Koine, became widespread in the Hellenic world and became a means of interethnic communication. The Greeks - warriors, officials, artisans, merchants, scattered over the vast territories of the Hellenistic world, overcame the polis limitations of their views. Among them, a new worldview became widespread - cosmopolitanism (from the Greek word "cosmopolites" - "citizen of the world").

The knowledge accumulated in Greece and the ancient East, combined with the successes and practical development of vast areas, contributed to rapid development Sciences. In the era of Hellenism, differentiation deepened and the systematization of sciences took place. Thanks to the research of Strato (III century BC), the science of physics appeared. Euclid and Archimedes made an outstanding contribution to the development of the mathematical sciences; in the development of astronomy - Aristarchus; in the creation of geography - Erastofen. The combination of Greek medical theory and practice with ancient Eastern experience gave rise to medical knowledge in the Alexandrian school. Its founder Herophilus created a descriptive human anatomy. Of all the Hellenistic societies, the history of Egypt is best known thanks to papyri preserved on Egyptian soil. In Alexandria, a huge library for that time was collected (up to 700 thousand papyrus scrolls). At the court of the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt, Museyon was organized - a scientific institution with a hostel for

scientists whom the Ptolemies invited here from all over the Hellenistic world. Here he created conditions for studying science, philosophy, and literature.

Callimachus was the head of the Alexandrian poets, and Theocritus was very popular. Alexandrian scientists were also famous for their achievements in mathematics, natural and technical sciences. But Alexandria was not the only center of science and art. In Athens, the traditions of Greek philosophy continued. During the Hellenistic period, two new philosophical systems arose and developed - the Stoics and the Epicureans. The traditions of Aristophanes were continued by the author of many comedies Menander. The largest Greek state and the center of Hellenistic culture was Syracuse on the island of Sicily.

The fine arts of the Hellenistic era had its outstanding achievements. Significant architectural monuments were created, combining Greek and Eastern traditions, which are characterized by a desire for grandiosity and splendor. Characterized by naturalism in portraits, emphasizing the individuality of the depicted person, the transfer of mental and physical suffering. New in the structure was the image of the landscape as a background, unknown to the Greek classics, against which the plot unfolded. According to literary data, Hellenistic painting achieved great success, but almost nothing has survived from the paintings, painted mainly with wax paints, and from the frescoes. The common cultural heritage of the Hellenistic period is an essential part of the basis on which world culture has successfully developed over the millennia.

Ancient Roman culture went through a difficult path of development from the culture of the Roman community of the city-state, absorbing cultural traditions ancient Greece, having experienced the influence of the Etruscan, Hellenistic cultures and cultures of the peoples of the ancient East. Roman culture became the breeding ground for the culture of the Romano-Germanic peoples of Europe. She gave the world classic examples of military art, state structure, law, urban planning and much more.

The history of ancient Rome is usually divided into three main periods:

Royal (VIII - beginning of VI centuries BC),

Republican (510/509 - 30/27 BC),

Empire period (30/27 BC - 476 AD).

Early Roman culture, like Greek, is closely connected with the religious ideas of the population of Ancient Rome. The religion of this time was characterized by polytheism, very close to animism. In the view of the Roman, every object and every phenomenon had its own spirit, its own deity. Each house had its own Vesta - the goddess hearth. The gods were in charge of every movement and breath of a person from birth to death. Another curious feature of the early Roman religion and worldview of people is the absence of certain images of the gods. The deities were not separated from those phenomena and processes that they were in charge of. The first images of the gods appear in Rome around the 6th century. BC. influenced by Etruscan and Greek mythology and its anthropomorphic deities. Before that, there were only symbols of the gods in the form of a spear, arrow, etc. Like other peoples of the world, the souls of ancestors were revered in Rome. They called them penates, lares, mans. A feature of the religious worldview of the Romans is their narrow practicality and the utilitarian nature of communication with deities according to the principle "do, ut des" - "I give, so that you give me."

The formal contractual nature of the relationship to the gods is associated with magic and magical ideas. In magic, everything is based on a formal combination of words and actions. The slightest mistake destroys the effect. The magicism of Roman religion led to the wide development of its ritual aspect. Complex rituals, in turn, required numerous specialists, hence the development of the priesthood. The Roman priesthood was more numerous, differentiated and authoritative than the Greek. There were a number of Greek colleges that fought for influence in the state. The most influential was the college of pontiffs. The head of this college was the high priest of Rome. The college of priests-fortunetellers was very numerous and influential, since divination occupied a large place in the life of the Romans and the ritual side of the Roman religion.

From the 5th century BC. a serious influence of Greek culture and religion begins, going through the colonies of the Greeks in Italy. The rich mythology of the Greeks, the whole poetic, colorful world of Greek legends, enriched the dry and prosaic soil of the Italo-Roman religion in many ways. Under the influence of the Greek and Etruscan mythological tradition, the supreme deities of the Romans stood out, the main of which are: Jupiter - the god of heaven, the goddess of heaven and the patroness of marriage, Jupiter's wife - Juno, Minerva - the patroness of crafts, Diana - the goddess of groves and hunting, Mars - the god of war. The myth of Aeneas appears, establishing the relationship of the Romans with the Greeks, the myth of Hercules (Hercules), etc. To a large extent, the Roman and Greek pantheons are identified. Around the 4th century BC. the Greek language spreads, mainly among the upper strata of the population. Some Greek customs are gaining popularity: shaving beards and cutting hair short, reclining at the table while eating, etc. In the 4th century. BC. in Rome, a copper coin is introduced according to the Greek model, and before that they paid simply with a piece of copper. The development of Roman civilization led to a significant growth and rise of the capital of the state, the city of Rome, which I - III centuries. BC. numbered from one to one and a half million inhabitants. After the conquest of the western part of the Hellenistic world by Rome, such large cultural centers as Alexandria of Egypt, Antioch in Syria, Ephesus in Asia Minor, Corinthus and Athens in Greece and Carthage on the northern coast of Africa entered its borders. Rome and other cities of the empire were decorated with magnificent buildings - temples, palaces, theaters, amphitheatres, circuses. Amphitheaters and circuses, in which animals were poisoned, gladiator fights and public executions were held, were a feature of the cultural life of Rome. The fertile soil of these cruel spectacles was endless wars, a colossal influx of slaves from conquered lands, the ability to feed and entertain the plebs through predatory wars.

hallmark cities of the era of the empire had the presence of communications: stone pavements, water pipes (aqueducts), sewers (cesspools). There were 11 aqueducts in Rome, two of which are still in operation. The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public people of the state. Magnificent buildings of public baths (terms) with hot and cold water, gyms and rest rooms were built. In many cities, houses were built in 3 - 6 floors.

The fine arts of the Roman Empire absorbed the achievements of all the conquered lands and peoples. Palaces and public buildings were decorated with wall paintings and paintings, the main plot of which was episodes of Greek and Roman mythology, as well as images of water and greenery. During the empire Special attention received a portrait sculpture, a characteristic feature of which was exceptional realism in the transfer of features of the depicted face. Many works of sculpture were beautifully executed copies of classical Greek and Hellenistic works of art. Mosaics and the processing of precious metals and bronze were a particularly widespread form of art.

Great success was achieved in Rome by enlightenment and scientific life. Education consisted of three levels: elementary, grammar school and rhetoric school. The latter was a higher school, and it taught the art of eloquence, which was highly valued in Rome. Emperors appropriated large sums for the maintenance of schools of rhetoric.

The centers of scientific activity remained the Hellenistic and Greek cities: Alexandria, Pergamon, Rhodes, Athens and, of course, Rome and Carthage. Great importance was attached in Rome in the I-II centuries. geographical knowledge and history. A particularly great contribution to the development of these areas of knowledge was made by the geographers Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy, the historians Tacitus, Titus Livius and Appian. The activity of the Greek writer and philosopher Plutarch belongs to this time. In the era of the empire, the literature of ancient Rome reached its apogee. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, Gaius Cylnius Maecenas lived. He collected, supported financially and took care of talented poets of his time. Among the poets, Virgil, a member of the circle of Maecenas and the author of the immortal epic poem "Aeneid", had the greatest fame even during his lifetime. Another poet of the Maecenas circle is the master of the perfect form of verse Horace Flaccus. The fate of Ovid Nason, a wonderful lyric poet, the author of the poem "The Art of Love", which caused the wrath of Emperor Augustus and the poet's exile to the Black Sea city of Toma (Constanta), far from Rome, was dramatic, where he created two collections of lyric poems "Sorrow" and "Messages from Pontus ". Wrote poetry and the famous Emperor Nero. Truly the era of the empire was the golden age of Roman poetry. The satirist Junius Juvenal, who wrote 16 satires, and the writer Apuleius, the author of a peculiar

fantasy novel "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass" about the transformation of the young man Lucius into a donkey and his adventures.

Main features antique type cultures manifested themselves through norms, classics and aesthetic form.

The concept of norm how the concept of culture takes shape already in the era of ancient Greece, but receives completeness, fully blooms in the Roman period of antiquity. Roman history is replete with stories of an edifying nature, when a person sacrificed his kindred feelings in the interests of society and the state. moral norm there was a glorification of people, first of all, for faithful service to the fatherland and the state. It is no coincidence that the norm of the art of rhetoric was such a form of speech organization in which the generally significant prevailed over the individual. Even on tombstones it was customary to write social statuses man and his merits before Rome. Only from the II century. AD epitaphs of lyrical, personal and family content appear. The ethics and aesthetics of achievement were the norm of ancient society and ancient culture.

The concept of classics means a social state or type of art in which the unique, individual and social are in a state of dynamic, unstable, but real balance. Classics as a principle community development It is the interaction of life and norm. For example, slavery for Rome - natural state: the domestic market is not developed, there is not such a number of consumers who would consume possible manufactured goods. But this is also an unnatural state of society, when a huge number of the population does not belong to Roman society. The resolution of this contradiction went in Rome along the path of creating an estate of freedmen. The conflict was constantly resolved in this way (of course, up to a certain time).

Another example - ancient tragedy. As a work of art, it is based on the collision of two truths: socially significant (norm) and individually personal. So, the heroine of the tragedy of Sophocles "Antigone" seeks to fulfill her duty to her family and loved one - to bury her brother, who was killed for participating in the conspiracy. The death of Antigone is the death of an untimely moral principle and the triumph of a socially enforced norm.

Aesthetic clarity of forms is important for ancient consciousness. Hence the characteristic aesthetic form antique art. The purpose of art is to make a talent and a gift for intelligible fellow citizens. Poems always follow a clear norm. The theatrical action corresponds to the existing canon: the audience knows the plot of a tragedy or comedy well in advance, there can be no surprises, but something else is important for them - the clarity and persuasiveness of a well-known plot and images, that is, a certain, accepted aesthetic form.

Roman culture is pagan culture. But the era of the late Roman Empire was marked by the wide spread within its borders of a new creed - Christianity, which won the final victory in Rome under the emperor Constantine (324 - 330). The fourth century of our era was the heyday of Christian eloquence. The abundance of church disputes and polemics with pagans gave rise to an extensive Christian literature, created according to all the rules of ancient rhetoric. Special sharpness ideological struggle between Christians and pagans adopted in the 5th century. AD - V recent decades existence of the great Roman power.

In the crisis that engulfed the Roman world in the III century. AD, one can detect the beginning of the upheaval, thanks to which the medieval West was born. Barbarian invasions of the 5th c. can be seen as an event that accelerated the transformation, gave it a catastrophic run and profoundly changed the whole appearance of this world. But along with the death of the Roman state, ancient culture did not disappear, although its development as a single organic whole did stop. The potential of ancient culture, its treasures, despite not being forgotten for a long time, were appreciated and claimed by descendants.

Antique culture is a unique phenomenon that gave general cultural values ​​in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose lives practically fit into the classical period of the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations of European civilization and created images to follow for millennia to come. The distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before the peoples imitate the Greeks, build a culture according to the patterns they created.

The culture of Ancient Rome - in many respects the successor of the ancient traditions of Greece - is distinguished by religious restraint, internal severity and external expediency. The practicality of the Romans found a worthy expression in urban planning, politics, jurisprudence, and military art. The culture of Ancient Rome largely determined the culture of subsequent eras in Western Europe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Textbook on cultural studies, publishing house of the Russian Economic Academy named after G.V. Plekhanov, Moscow, 1994.

Ancient Greece.

The culture of Ancient Greece as the beginning and paradigm of European culture.

Each period in the history of culture is valuable in its own way. But it is no coincidence that researchers assign a special role to ancient (especially Greek) culture. Literature, art, and philosophy of ancient Greece became the starting point in the development of European culture. Geographical framework - the territory of Ancient Greece and Rome, chronological - from the origins of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture (border 3-2 thousand BC) to the crisis of the Roman Empire in the III century. AD However, the impact of ancient culture on the world (primarily European) culture goes far beyond these limits, which speaks of its specificity - the specificity of a culture that has a paradigmatic function. Common features of the ancient cultural paradigm: integrity, cosmologism (cosmocentrism), rationalism. The essence of the ancient way of relating to the world was determined by a specific, but natural and harmonious model of the world. The central event of the world model was the cosmos ruled by the gods. The events of the great and eternal, God-chosen and God-protected ancient society and the events of the ancient man, who was entrusted with a divine mission, fit into this event. The main features of this model are the following:

ancient cosmism. The cosmos appears in unity opposite principles, as fatalistic, but also giving a person a chance to intervene in cosmic affairs through a heroic principle, as impersonal and, at the same time, sensual, animated, reasonable;

ancient pantheism, in which the cosmos was conceived as an absolute deity, in which only the gods have access to the laws of nature; on the other hand, the cosmos is a house in which a person lives, and the gods are anthropomorphic, therefore understandable to a person and accessible to the influence of outstanding personalities, heroes.

It is no coincidence that man resembles gods.

The main feature of ancient culture is that it grows and develops on the basis of urban (polis) social and spiritual life.

2. Periodization of the culture of Ancient Greece and general characteristics of historical and cultural periods.

a) Crete-Mycenaean culture;

At the origins of Greek culture are Crete and Mycenae. This era (2nd millennium BC) is characterized by a "palace" culture. A distinctive feature is the presence of palaces-citadels, powerful architectural complexes containing extensive storerooms, administrative and religious premises. This kind of palace is the focus of economic, military and religious life, the center of the social system. “The palace kept on the strictest account real and planned receipts (mainly handicraft and agricultural products), the palace was in charge of the organization of labor, military affairs, the issuance of food to persons performing any work ...” The entire economic life of the state was documented: the consumption and distribution of raw materials (primarily metal) in state and private craft workshops, subject to state labor duties and taxes, as well as the entire population of settlements subject to the palace. This required a large bureaucratic apparatus: a whole staff of scribes and officials of various ranks. At the head was a priest-king (vanaka). At the same time, attention should be paid to the relative independence of communal settlements and the isolation of individual palace complexes from each other (it is no coincidence that they were surrounded by powerful defensive walls). In the Mycenaean state, there was no need to carry out grandiose public works, which, for example, were carried out in connection with irrigation agriculture in Egypt, or in a centralized state that monopolized economic functions. However, there remained a general need for defense, which no settlement taken on its own could provide. The state apparatus also included a large staff of military officials who led, first of all, detachments of war chariots. The state possessed large stocks of food, metal and ready-made weapons necessary for the maintenance of troops. So only the military function was completely monopolized: the unprotected settlements of the community members depended on the military force concentrated in the palace-citadels.

At the head of the bureaucratic apparatus was the king-priest, which, together with evidence of the presence of a powerful priestly class, allows us to speak of the theocratic nature of the nobility. Theocracy is a form of government in which political power belongs to the priests, the clergy. The priest-king himself performed complex religious rites, being the high priest among the priests of the main temples. The main sacred function of the king-priest was to preserve the “sacred order in nature”, the life of nature, its order, was associated with the life of the king. A person in such a social system has not yet freed himself from a religious (polytheistic) worldview. Polytheism, in the presence of the priesthood, turned into a religious-ideological system. The division of labor achieved by that time received an ideological justification in the system of gods - the creators and guardians of professions. In the religious ideas of a person, the mythologeme of fate plays an important role (“predetermined” fate, dependence on the gods).

b) the Homeric era (XI-IX centuries BC);

In Homeric society there is no king-priest. The collapse of the palace system “untied the hands” of the aristocracy (basilei) in the struggle for glory, valor and wealth. Homer's "basile" is rather a military leader than a monarch endowed with "sacred" powers. His power is unstable and can be challenged in the absence of a “basileus”. “Leadership is based not on coercive power and not even on the power of authority (i.e. the ability to induce others to desired actions without the use of force and even without the threat of its use), but prestige, which can be easily lost, challenged by another person or persons, in short, it is not something permanent” (A.M. Khazanov). Manifestations of social instability are competitiveness, “agonistics”.

The main value is military prowess (“arete”), its achievement is regulated by the “heroic code”, the achievement of glory. The fruits of valor are honor (“time”), which has not only spiritual, but also material meaning: it is the honor of owning certain goods, it is honor and respect associated with high social standing and the resulting material benefits.

The main form of social control is the "culture of shame" ("aidos") - the direct condemning reaction of the people to the deviation of the hero from the norm.

c) archaic era (VIII-VI centuries BC);

A polis (city-state) is formed. The ancient policy has long evoked an enthusiastic attitude as an "ideal form of state life", with its inherent order, freedom and justice. For antiquity, “political” is a synonym for “civil”. A citizen (“polites”) of a city-state is a full-fledged participant in solving all state affairs, both internal and foreign policy. First of all, the importance and significance of the issues addressed in public sphere, towards privacy citizens: these are questions of war and peace; grain and trade policy; organization of festivities and theatrical performances; the distribution of duties among commercial, usurious and generally property circles; distribution of money to poor citizens; organization of public works, etc. All the most important issues of private life (issues of inheritance of property and others requiring legal proceedings) were in the hands of the state. There were no private courts and any kind of intermediary organizations. The relations of citizens with the state are direct and immediate. They are based on the fact that every adult male who enjoys the rights of citizenship participates in the public life of the policy. It is assumed that he is the owner of the house, oikosa - a private household. He simultaneously acts both as an organizer of the economy (“oikonom”) and as a citizen (“polites”). Although non-interference in domestic affairs is widespread, not only is he who is active, but also he who has managed to preserve his father's inheritance, is not distinguished by extravagance and extravagance, is considered a good citizen. A good owner of an oikos is regarded as a good citizen, and vice versa, a bad oikonom cannot be a good politician. Management of the house and participation in public affairs are regarded as abilities of the same order. In the oikos, the citizen manages the labor of slaves or works himself. The task of the slave owner is to distribute the technological operations among the slaves, to ensure the integrity of the technological process. In accordance with this task, slaves of various levels are distributed: slaves involved in the management of labor (manager, housekeeper), skilled slaves, slaves performing menial work.

The policy included land plots belonging to the city. The cultivation of the land itself does not cause difficulties with the conduct of private farming. Obstacles arise due to external reasons - the need for defense from neighboring communities. A community organized as a state turns out to be a prerequisite for the appropriation of land, a condition for conducting a private economy: “The community (as a state) is the relationship between free and equal private owners, their association against the outside world and at the same time their guarantee” (Marx K., Engels F.). At the same time, an individual - a member of the state - has the right to use communal land and is the owner of his plot.

Thus, participation in civil affairs, personal political activity of citizens of the policy is a historically necessary form of their life and follows from the dependence of private households on the presence of a developed state life that ensures their existence (economic and military security). Naturally, a branched, multifaceted state life required a certain preparation of citizens, and not only literacy skills (writing), not only military skills or oratory training, but also formed personalities. The citizen of the polis was different from the heroes of the Homeric era and the era of Hesiod. First of all, we can fix changes in the understanding of virtue. Virtue (valor) is the privilege of a citizen of the policy. They did not go to extend civil privileges to slaves and foreigners. "Military virtues" received some restrictions (primarily from the economic side). Already Solon makes the performance of military duties dependent on the monetary income of citizens. So it was not military prowess that influenced financial situation and become dependent on it. Virtues of reason, moderation and prudence become an important component of virtues. Strength ceases to be the main one. It was necessary to be able to force yourself to listen, to convince. And, of course, among all the virtues, justice came to the fore.

The idea of ​​fame has also changed. It was important not only to win a victory, but also to convince the witnesses of it, both in the case of a major military victory (the people's assembly took a special decision on this matter), and in any small, say, sports competition. In addition, glory ceases to be the privilege of a warrior. It applies not only to Olympic athletes, it is achieved by poets, playwrights, philosophers.

The main thing is that the mechanism of public recognition has changed. It was carried out now thanks to the mediating role of state bodies and, above all, the people's assembly.

Life in the policy brought up a person, accustomed him to responsibility, readiness to make a new decision, free from mechanical adherence to dogmatic patterns.

d) the era of the classics (V century BC);

The era of the classics is a short-term rise of the Greek genius in all areas of culture: art, architecture, literature, philosophy and science.

e) the era of Hellenism (K. IV-I centuries BC).

In the Italian cities in the XIV century, "lovers of wisdom" began to appear. They considered antiquity to be the "golden age" in the history of human civilization, when science and art reached their peak, and people were distinguished by wisdom and valor. The barbarians destroyed the whole idyll of antiquity. They were rude, ignorant and spoke in rude dialects. "Lovers of wisdom" sought to return the "golden age" and intertwine antiquity with Christianity. They called their time the Renaissance. At the same time, the division of history into Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the New Age appeared.

Philosophers studied Greek and Latin, ancient culture, conducted archaeological excavations to search for ancient manuscripts and statues. Their behavior and manners were taken from ancient philosophers and heroes.

The “People of Wisdom” were of different classes and levels of knowledge: from a shop foreman to a university professor. All of them enthusiastically discussed the latest ancient manuscript found during excavations. ancient settlement. People united in circles, corresponded and often communicated with each other.

Philosophers of that time attributed the Middle Ages to the "dark failure". The ideals of the ancient culture of the humanists of Europe consisted in the beauty and valor of that era.

The doctrine of man

"Lovers of wisdom" were interested not only in the church, but also in their people, their present and past, customs and mores, and events. New scientists showed interest in the earthly life of man - "studio humanitatis". From this term came the name of philosophers and scientists time - humanists, and the Renaissance is often called the era of humanists.

A new doctrine about man has appeared. He became the "crown of God's creation", which was compared with nature. For the humanists, man has become the center of the universe. Even during his lifetime, he must achieve greatness by work and effort of will. The reward for a person should not be heavenly greatness, but glory in earthly life. God favors successful people and success is proof of his mercy.

The ideal of the humanists was the "universal man". With his perseverance and labor, he achieved perfection in everything: physical beauty and strength, art, philosophical teachings, military skills, etc.

Humanists considered man the master of his life, and God only gives the right to choose. Only the person himself determines his position - to rise to heaven or fall below the cattle.

Human abilities are the grain that is laid down by nature. Greatness can only be achieved by daily cultivating this seed and cultivating the spirit. Therefore, most humanists in their free time developed themselves spiritually and physically. IN free time they studied philosophy, art, literature and other sciences.

They began to call their groups circles. The leisure of its members was filled with high occupations. The main condition for becoming a humanist was the free disposal of oneself and one's time.

Training sessions must take place under 5 conditions:

• Relationship with educated people.
• Lots of books.
• Comfortable place.
• Free time.
• Calmness and lack of fullness of spiritual space.

In the days of the feudal lords, nobility was determined by the nobility of the ancestors. Humanists rejected such claims. In their opinion, nobility and origin are not connected. A princely son or a shoemaker will be noble if he constantly works on his soul. Only in this way can glory and greatness be achieved.

Scientists-humanists were engaged in pedagogical work a lot. They conducted educational conversations and sought to educate perfect man and the ideal citizen. Science was needed to make people free.