Hygienic traditions in ancient India. Medicine in the countries of the Ancient East

India is one of the oldest centers of civilization. The peoples who inhabited the valley of the river. Indus, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC created an original culture that was not inferior to the culture ancient egypt and states of Mesopotamia. Archaeological studies have shown that cities built no later than the 3rd millennium BC. (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro), were distinguished by a high level of construction and sanitary improvement. The sewerage system of Mohenjo-daro was the most perfect in the territory of the Ancient East, some hydraulic structures were the prototype of modern structures. In the 3rd millennium BC. hieroglyphic writing was created, which has not yet been deciphered. Metal smelting, forging and casting were known. Many tools of production and weapons were made of bronze and copper.

In the development of ancient India, periods are distinguished

1. 3-beginning 2 thousand BC period of the Harappan civilization.

2. Vedic period - end. 2-ser 1 millennium BC

3. Kdassian period - 2nd half. 1 thousand BC

The long absence of a single ideology led to the emergence of various religious and philosophical teachings. Main sources - ancient literary monuments. The Rig Veda is a collection of hymns and myths. Mahabharata - Encyclopedia folk tales. The laws of Manu are a legal monument.

The Harappan civilization is characterized by a high level of sanitation.

Division into estates - varnas. Brahmins are priests, kshtariyas are military nobility, vaishyas are free community members, shudras are disenfranchised poor, pariahs are untouchables. Representatives of the first 3 estates could engage in healing. At the heart of many teachings is the idea of the primary essence, the world soul. The human body is considered as the outer shell of the soul, which is a part of the world spirit. The soul is eternal and immortal, man is not perfect. It is possible to achieve the unity of the soul and the world spirit only under the condition of complete abstinence from active participation in earthly life, the liberation of the soul from ties with the earthly world. This is served by yoga, which is integral part all ancient Indian religious systems.

The practice and technique of yoga originated in primitive magic with her ideas of the mysterious vital energy, which, like a coiled snake, slumbers in one of the nerve centers in the lower part of the spine. But if you do certain exercises - asanas, then the energy can be awakened. Along with mysticism, yoga also contains rational principles. She absorbed knowledge about the role of self-hypnosis, about the beneficial effects exercise, about the dependence of the spiritual state on bodily factors.

4-6 centuries BC - the rise of spiritual culture. The therapy was based on the doctrine of the juices of the body. The task of the doctor is to bring them into harmony. Indian medicine proceeded from the fact that hygienic prescriptions are not inferior in terms of their impact to therapeutic agents. The occurrence of the disease was explained by the uneven combination of five (according to other sources, three) juices human body(in accordance with the five elements of the world - earth, water, fire, air and ether). Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, and illness as a violation of these correct ratios and the negative impact of the elements on a person. It was argued that the state of health is affected by climate change, age, mood of the patient. The most vulnerable are the elderly, they get sick even more easily. infants. Longing, sadness, anger, fear - "the first steps on the ladder of any disease."

Diagnosis was carried out by a detailed survey. Diet, medicinal and surgical methods were used. Operative treatment (surgery) was the highest in the ancient world. Produced amputation of limbs, plastic surgery.

The fame of the healing properties of Indian plants spread widely outside the country. Through trade routes they were exported to the countries of the Mediterranean.

And Central Asia, Southern Siberia, China. The main export items were musk, sandalwood, aloe, and incense.

Medical training existed in schools attached to temples and monasteries.

There were higher schools - universities. The mentor had 3-4 students. They were taught to be the first friend of the sick. Treat all patients equally. For treatment, take no more than what is needed for food. Medical assistance was provided mainly at home. Some doctors had their own dispensaries and even hospitals. Stationary institutions such as hospitals were located in the port cities, and inland on the central roads.

The healers of ancient India performed amputations, laparotomy, stone cutting, and plastic surgery. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century.

MEDICINE IN ANCIENT INDIA

The ancient and original civilization of India developed in the III millennium BC. e. within the Hindustan subcontinent. In the history of healing in ancient India, three stages are clearly traced:

1) Indian civilization (23-18 century BC, Indus River Valley), when the first slave-owning city-states in the history of ancient India were formed on the territory of modern Pakistan;

2) the Vedic period (18-6 BC, the valley of the Ganges), when with the advent of the Aryans the center of civilization moved to the eastern part of the subcontinent and the compilation of "sacred texts" began, transmitted over a long period in the oral tradition;

3) Buddhist (5-3 centuries BC) and classical period(2nd century BC - 5th century AD) - the time of the highest flourishing of the traditional culture of ancient INDIA. the development of agriculture, crafts and trade, the rise of an original culture, the establishment and spread of Buddhism, successes in various fields of knowledge, the widespread development of India's trade and cultural ties with the countries of the ancient world, which brought her fame as the "Country of the Wise Men".

Sanitation of the period of Indian civilization

In the second half of the III millennium BC. e. in the river basin Indus, a highly developed urban culture was formed, which later received the name - Indian civilization. Its characteristic features are the high level of sanitary improvement of cities. Drainpipes through the thickness of the wall went into the sewage system of the city. Each street and each alley had its own brick-lined sewage channel. Before entering the channels waste water and sewage passed through cesspools and cesspools covered with tightly ground lids. The construction of the sewage system is much more attention than the construction of residential buildings. The high sanitary condition of the ancient cities allows us to conclude that the level of empirical healing is also relatively high.

Medicine in the Vedic period

The center of civilization at this stage in the history of ancient India was the river. Ganges. Indications of medical knowledge have been preserved in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda. Three ailments are mentioned in the Rigveda: leprosy, consumption, and bleeding. Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts on magical healing rites. During the Vedic period, people worshiped medical deities. IN ancient Indian mythology there were also evil demons who brought misfortune, illness, ruin to people, deprived of offspring. So, in the "Atharvaveda" diseases or are associated with evil spirits, or regarded as a punishment of the gods; the cure of ailments was explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells. At the same time, the Atharvaveda also reflects the practical experience of the people in using medicinal plants, whose action at that time was understood as a healing force that counteracts evil spirits. At the end of the Vedic period, ancient Indian society was finally divided into four main classes: brahmins (i.e., a priest), kshatriyas (i.e., military nobility and members of royal families), vaishyas (i.e., mainly farmers and pastoralists) and sudras (sud-ga - disenfranchised poor). Each of the varnas consisted of many castes and podcasts. there was a fifth, lowest class - pariahs (untouchables), used in the most unpleasant and humiliating jobs.

Healing of the classical period

The main directions of traditional ancient Indian medicine of the classical period are reflected in two outstanding monuments of ancient Ayurvedic literature: "Charaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samkhta". The earlier "Charaka-samhita" is devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contains information on more than 600 medicines vegetable, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of diseases of the head area; treatment of diseases of the whole organism; treatment of mental illness; treatment of childhood diseases; antidotes; elixirs against senile decrepitude; drugs that increase sexual activity. "Sushruta-samhita" is mainly devoted to surgical treatment; it describes more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical instruments and at least 650 medicines. The knowledge of Indian healers about the structure of the human body was the most complete in the ancient world. The ancient Indians distinguished: membranes, ligaments, bones and their classification, tendons, joints, organs, nerves. During this period, elements of natural scientific knowledge were also revealed. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world from the five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The different quality of objects was explained by the different combination of the smallest particles of anu (“atoms”). The vital activity of orgaism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water (the carriers of which in the body were considered prana, bile and mucus). Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of the vital functions of the body, normal state sense organs and clarity of mind, and illness - as a violation of these correct relationships and the negative impact on a person of the five elements. Sushruta divided all diseases into natural, associated with nature, and supernatural, sent by the gods.

Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed questioning of the patient and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, secretions, noises in the lungs, voices, etc. Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine. Sushruta's treatise describes three stages of inflammation, the signs of which he considered: in the first period - minor pains; in the second - shooting pains, swelling, local heat, redness and dysfunction; in the third, the reduction of "swelling and the formation of pus. For the treatment of inflammation, Sushruta suggested local medicines and surgical methods.

The treatment was aimed at balancing the disturbed ratio of fluids (substances), which was achieved, firstly, by diet, secondly, by drug therapy (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics, etc.), and thirdly, by surgical methods of treatment, in which the ancient Indians reached a high perfection. Only healers were engaged in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites).

Childbirth in ancient India was considered independent region healing. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on maintaining cleanliness and a proper lifestyle, describes deviations from the normal course of childbirth, fetal deformity, embryotomy (which was recommended in cases where it was impossible to turn the fetus on a leg or head), caesarean section (used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby ) and turning the fetus on the leg.

The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India was the highest in the ancient world. Sushruta considered surgery "the first and best of all medical sciences, a precious work of heaven. Still having no idea about antiseptics and asepsis, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, achieved careful cleanliness during operations. Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which in India they learned to produce in ancient times, sharpened so that they could easily cut hair. The healers of ancient India carried out amputations of limbs, lithotomy, hernia repair, and plastic surgery. They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in battle or by court order. The method of rhinoplasty, described in detail in the treatise of Sushruta, went down in history under the name of the "Indian method". A skin flap for the formation of the future nose was cut on the vascular pedicle from the skin of the forehead or cheek.

In India, hygienic traditions have long been developed. Great importance was given to personal hygiene, beauty and neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home, the influence of climate and seasons on people's health. Hygienic skills are enshrined in the "Regulations of Mlnu". Hygienic traditions contributed to the development of medical science. In the Mauryan Empire (IV-II centuries BC), there were strict rules that prohibited the discharge of sewage into the streets of the city and regulated the place and methods of burning the corpses of the dead; in doubtful cases of human death, an autopsy was ordered; the body of the deceased was examined and covered with special oil in order to prevent decomposition. Severe penalties were also established for mixing poisons in food, medicines and incense. During the time of Ashoka, almshouses and rooms for the sick were built.

A little later, they began to build special houses for the crippled, the crippled, widows, orphans and the sick.

The medicine of ancient India was closely connected with yoga. great attention yoga focuses on cleanliness of the body and a peculiar way of life. The doctrine of yoga consists of two levels: hatha yoga (physical yoga) and raja yoga (mastery of the spirit).

Important role monasteries and monks, among whom there were many knowledgeable healers, played in the development of healing in ancient India. All the monks had some knowledge in the field of medicine, since it was considered a high virtue to provide medical assistance to the laity.

Among the centers medical education a special place is occupied by the city of Taxila (ind. Takshashila). A student of medicine had to master all facets of medical art. This sermon bears the characteristic features of its time, but in its main provisions it is very similar to the Oath of the ancient Greek healers.

medical ethics ancient India strictly demanded that the healer, “who wants to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, leave the house only with a stick and an umbrella, in particular avoided chatter ... ". Remuneration for treatment was forbidden to demand from the disadvantaged, friends of the doctor and brahmins; and the traditional Chinese art of healing, on the contrary, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the healer was awarded all their property. For improper treatment, the doctor paid a fine depending on social status sick.

MEDICINE IN ANCIENT CHINA

Periodization of history and medicine

In the history of healing in ancient China, two large periods are distinguished: the period of formation (XVIII-III centuries BC), when the oral tradition prevailed, and the period of the Han Empire (III century BC - III century AD). .), when the chronicles of the Han dynasty were compiled and the medical writings that have come down to us were recorded.

Philosophical Foundations Chinese medicine

The teaching of ancient Chinese philosophers about the material world gives rise to two opposing substances - feminine (yin) and masculinity(yang); the interaction and struggle of these principles give rise to five elements (wu xing): water, fire, wood, metal and earth, from which the whole diversity of the material world arises - “ten thousand things” (wan wu), including man. Man is a part of nature, part of the great triad Heaven - Man - Earth, and is in harmony with the surrounding world.

The spontaneous materialistic views of ancient Chinese philosophers formed the basis of traditional Chinese medicine. The structure of the body - each organ was correlated with the substances of yin and yang. The Ying organs perform functions of preservation and do not give away the stored in themselves, while the Yang organs, on the contrary (for example, the stomach, intestines). Anatomical knowledge was modest, as autopsies were banned due to the adoption of Confucianism. The concept of health - health is a state of balance of yin and yang in the body, and illness is a violation of this ratio. Various ratios of these disorders were combined into several syndromes, which were divided into two groups: excess syndrome - yang and deficiency syndrome - yin. The variety of diseases was explained by the breadth of the interaction of the organism with the outside world and nature, the characteristics of the organism itself, a long stay in one of the emotional states(anger, joy, sadness, etc.) and other natural causes.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

The art of diagnosis in ancient China was based on the following methods of examination of the patient: examination of the skin, eyes, mucous membranes and tongue; determining the general condition and mood of the patient; listening to sounds that arise in the human body, determining its smells; a detailed survey of the patient; study of the pulse; pressure on active points. Historical chronicles The Han Dynasty tells of miraculous healings performed by BianQue and his students, skillfully using acupuncture and moxibustion, massage, and local medicines. One of greatest achievements philosophical thought of ancient China is the idea of the circular motion of blood and the pulse. Examining the patient, they studied the pulse at no less than nine points and distinguished up to 28 types of pulse. Over time, the method of studying the pulse turned into a harmonious doctrine of the pulse, which was the pinnacle of diagnostics in ancient China.

A characteristic feature of traditional Chinese medicine is zhen-jiu therapy (Chinese zhen-acupuncture; Latin acupunctura; Chinese jiu - moxibustion). The empirical roots of this method go back to ancient times, when it was noticed that injections, cuts or wounds at certain points of the body lead to the healing of certain ailments. So, on the basis of long-term observations, philosophers and healers of ancient China came to the conclusion about the existence of "vital points", the irritation of which contributes to the regulation life processes. They believed that through the holes made in the "vital points", the disturbed balance of Yin-Yang is restored, the beginning of Yang leaves the patient's body in case of its excess or enters the body in case of its deficiency, as a result of which the disease disappears.

The first acupuncture needles were made of stone. They had the thinnest hole through which the beginning of yang was believed to move. Subsequently, needles began to be made not only from silicon or jasper, but also from bone, bamboo, and later from metals: bronze, silver (Fig. 36), gold, platinum and stainless steel. With the development of this method, there has been a specialization of needles and their division into types. The Neijing treatise describes nine types of needles.

The rich variety of needles speaks of the breadth of the acupuncture method in antiquity: it was used for the treatment and prevention of diseases, for pain relief during operations, and also in combination with massage and the method of cauterization, that is, the thermal effect on "vital points" through lit cigarettes, stuffed with dry leaves of medicinal plants.

In ancient China, there were several methods of cauterization. Direct cauterization was carried out in the immediate vicinity of a burning cigarette from the body. With the indirect cautery method, the cigarette was at some distance from the point of impact, and medicinal substances could be placed between the cigarette and the body. Cauterization with warm needles combined both acupuncture and moxibustion: the cigarette was twisted around the needle and lit when the needle was in the tissues; in this way a combined effect was achieved (the action of a needle and a smoldering medicinal plant).

Medicinal medicine in ancient China reached a high level of perfection. From folk Chinese medicine entered the world practice: from plants - ginseng, magnolia vine, camphor, tea, rhubarb, resin; from products of animal origin - deer antlers, liver, gelatin; from mineral substances - iron, mercury, sulfur, etc. In 502, the first Chinese pharmacopoeia known in the world was created, in seven books of which 730 species of medicinal plants are described. In ancient China, there were institutions that today are called pharmacies.

The first special medical schools also appeared in China only in the Middle Ages (from the 6th century). Until that time, knowledge of traditional healing was passed down by inheritance or in a narrow circle of initiates.

The development of surgical treatment in ancient China (as well as the autopsy of human corpses) was difficult. no religious prohibitions.

The largest surgeon of ancient China is Hua Guo. (141-208), who became famous as a skillful diagnostic expert in Zhen-jiu therapy. He successfully treated fractures, performed operations on the skull, chest and abdominal cavities. For pain relief during operations, Hua Tuo used the method of acupuncture, achieving the desired result by introducing one or two needles.

The strength of ancient Chinese medicine was the prevention of disease. Even in the treatise "Neijing" it was noted: "The tasks of medicine are to heal the sick and strengthen the health of the healthy."

Since ancient times, massage has been an important therapeutic and preventive measure in ancient China. physiotherapy, based on the imitation of a stork, a monkey, a deer, a tiger and a bear, breathing exercises that were used by the people to maintain health and achieve longevity.

There is evidence of the widespread introduction of variolation in order to prevent smallpox. So, according to legend in the XII century. BC e. During the smallpox epidemic, Chinese healers tried to prevent the spread of the disease by rubbing the crusts of smallpox pustules into the nostrils of healthy children.

In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. in the river basin Indus formed the oldest civilization in South Asia. It goes back to the name of one of the rivers in the north-west of the country - Sindhu (Sindhu), which the Iranians called Hindu (Hindu), and the Greeks - Indos (Indos). From here came the name of the people - "Indians" and their country - "Country of the Indians". Currently, modern states are located on its territory: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal.

The heyday of the Indus culture falls on the end of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Its characteristic features are monumental architecture, planned development of cities, a high level of their sanitary improvement, the development of artificial irrigation, crafts, and writing.

Periodization of medical history:

1) Indian civilization (XXIII - XVIII centuries BC, Indus River valley) - proto-Indian civilization, the oldest in South Asia.

2) the Vedic period (XIII-VI centuries BC, the Ganges river valley).

3) Buddhist (V - III centuries BC) and classical (II century BC - V century AD).

characteristic features of the sanitary business of the period Indian civilization are:

1. monumental architecture,

2. planned development of cities,

3. high level of their sanitary improvement,

4. development of artificial irrigation,

5. development of crafts (ceramics, metal and stone products),

6. creation of proto-Indian writing.

By the size of the territory, the level of urban construction, sanitary improvement, etc. Indus culture significantly surpassed the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia of the corresponding period.

The construction of cities in the Indus Valley was carried out according to a predetermined plan. In different parts of the city there were wells lined with burnt bricks. Residential houses were also built of burnt bricks. Drainpipes through the thickness of the walls went into the sewage system of the city. None other ancient civilization even the Roman one did not have such a perfect drainage system.

At the same time, the splendor of the sanitary facilities of the Indus civilization does not characterize the general level of sanitary construction in Ancient India as a whole - in subsequent periods of the history of Ancient India, it decreased significantly.

Its causes, according to researchers, were the phenomena internal character(floods, droughts, depletion of internal resources), the penetration of more backward tribes into the Indus Valley.

Intelligence about the healing of the Vedic period are very limited. Thus, only three ailments are mentioned in the Rigveda: leprosy, consumption, and bleeding. Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts about the rites of magical healing - the healing knowledge of the Vedic period was closely intertwined with religious beliefs and magical rites.

The Vedic religion has mythological characters, which are directly or indirectly associated with ideas about healing, health and illness. important deities considered Agni - the god of fire, hearth, an intermediary between gods and people, and Surya - the deity of the Sun and the all-seeing eye of the gods. The main deity of the Vedic religion was considered Indra - the god of thunder and lightning, the king (raja) of the gods, the generous patron of people; the embodiment of strength, courage and fertility. Along with good deities in ancient Indian mythology, there were also evil spirits and demons: asuras and rakshasas - enemies of gods and people, as well as pichashas - who brought misfortune, illness, ruin and deprived of offspring.

These ideas are reflected in the Atharva Veda. On the one hand, it shows the empirical experience of the people in the use of medicinal plants, the action of which was understood as a healing force that counteracts evil spirits. On the other hand, diseases in the Atharvaveda are associated with evil spirits or are regarded as a punishment of the gods; and the cure of ailments is explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells.

ancient healers so they were called bhishaj("exorcist"). This name was retained by them for more late periods the history of ancient India, when the healer-caster turned into a healer-healer. Over time, ideas about the causes of diseases have also changed. Thus, the Yajurveda mentions the juices of the body.

Only representatives of the three highest varnas had the right to engage in healing and study the Vedas - brahmamas (knowing sacred teachings, i.e. priest), kshatriyas (endowed with power, i.e. military nobility and members of royal families - the ruling class, the historical Buddha was a kshatriya) , vaishyas (a free community member, i.e. mainly farmers, cattle breeders, merchants). Shudras and pariahs: practically had no rights. They were not allowed to listen and repeat the Vedas.

By the beginning of our era in ancient India, a highly developed traditional healing system - Ayurveda (ayurveda - the doctrine of long life).

Ayurveda, or Ayurvedic medicine, uses the natural medicines of the region, based on the national philosophical tradition. For two thousand years, it has been successfully developed and highly valued in India and beyond.

In ancient times eminent figures traditional Indian medicine were the legendary healers Charaka (I-II centuries AD) and Sushruta (about IV century AD) - the authors of two classic Ayurvedic treatises: "Charaka Samhita" (dated from I-II centuries AD). BC), which describes the treatment of internal diseases, and "Sushruta Samhita" (dated from the 4th century AD), which is largely devoted to surgical healing.

Representation about the structure of the human body in ancient India were the most complete in ancient history. The study of corpses in ancient India was not forbidden by religion and was easily bathed in cleansing baths, touching a sacred cow or looking at the sun.

According to Sushruta, Indian healers believed that the human body consists of six members (head, torso and four limbs), seven membranes, 500 muscles, 900 ligaments, 90 tendons, 300 bones, including teeth and cartilage), which were divided into flat, round long , 107 joints, 40 main vessels and 700 of their branches (for blood, mucus and air), 24 nerves, nine sense organs and three fluids (mucus of bile and air). Some areas (palm, soles, testicles, inguinal regions, etc.) were highlighted as especially important. Their damage was considered life-threatening. At the same time, the ancient Indians did not have a clear idea about the purpose of the brain and believed that the seat of the mind is the heart (the ancient Egyptians had similar ideas).

The knowledge of Indian healers in the field of the structure of the human body played essential role in the development of ancient Indian surgery.

Ideas about the causes of diseases in the classical period, the history of ancient India changed somewhat. Healers began to move away from the supernatural understanding of the disease that dominated the Vedic period. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world, which, according to the ancient Indians, consisted of five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The vital activity of the organism was considered through the interaction of three substances: air, fire and water, the carriers of which in the body were considered to be three primary fluids: wind, bile and mucus (mucus is above the heart, bile is between the navel and the heart, air is below the navel). From the five elements and three fluids, seven organic products that make up the human body are formed: blood - the first source of life, muscles, fat, bones, brain and male seed.

The wind in nature is the carrier of light, coolness, sound spreading in space, quickly rushing streams. Inside the human body, the Wind controls blood circulation, digestion, excretion, and even metabolism, which involves the active movement of complex molecular biochemical complexes. Accelerating or slowing down the "movement of juices and substances" through the Wind disrupts the normal vital activity of the organism.

Bile is represented in nature by fire, and in the body it causes "natural heat", maintains body temperature and ensures the activity of the digestive organs and the activity of the heart muscle.

Phlegm in space and man was associated with all sorts of "soft" substances. It has been compared to a lubricating oil that coats all solid and rough substances and facilitates their movement and interaction.

With any disturbances in the action of wind, bile and mucus, a disease occurs. It is all the more dangerous and difficult, the deeper the harmony between the three primary elements is broken. And the doctor restores health, bringing all three primary elements into the necessary balance through strictly prescribed medical indications.

Sushruta divided all diseases into natural, related to nature (for example, air causes 80 diseases, bile - 40, mucus - 30), and supernatural, sent by the gods (leprosy, venereal and other contagious diseases, the causes of which were still impossible to understand at that time). ).

Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed survey of the patient and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, discharge, noise in the lungs, voice characteristics, etc. Sushruta describes sugar diabetes, which he determined by the taste of urine.

Treatment of internal diseases most fully presented in the treatise "Charaka Samhita", which contains information on more than 600 medicinal products of plant, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of diseases of the head area; treatment of diseases of the whole organism; treatment of mental illness; treatment of childhood diseases; antidotes; elixirs against senile decrepitude; drugs that increase sexual activity.

Tactics of treatment in ancient India, as in other countries ancient world, was determined primarily by the curability or incurability of the disease. With a favorable prognosis, the healer took into account the characteristics of the disease, the season, age, temperament, strength and mind of the patient (they said that “fools are more easily cured, because they follow the advice more accurately”).

The treatment was aimed at restoring the disturbed ratio of fluids (substances), which was achieved, firstly, by diet, secondly, by drug therapy (vomiting, laxatives, diaphoretics, etc.) and thirdly, by surgical methods of treatment, in which ancient Indians have reached a high perfection.

Only healers were involved in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites).

The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India, in terms of its skill and effectiveness, it was the highest in the ancient world (it was famous in all countries and in the Middle Ages).

Sushruta considered surgery "the first and best of all medical sciences, a precious work of heaven, a sure source of glory". The Sushruta Samhita describes more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical instruments and at least 750 herbal medicines, among which there is not a single remedy of European origin.

Not yet having scientific ideas about antisepsis and asepsis, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, have achieved careful observance of cleanliness during operations.

Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times. They were stored in special wooden boxes.

Wounds were bandaged linen, silk and woolen fabrics soaked in melted cow butter, as well as bandages made of leather and palm bark. Used for seams linen and tendon threads and horsehair.

The healers of Ancient India performed amputations of limbs, laparotomies, stone, hernia repair, plastic surgery, stitched wounds on the head, face, and even the windpipe. Plastic surgery of the ancient Indians deserve special attention. They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in battle or by sentence. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century.

In ancient Indian texts, the operation of removing a clouded lens - a cataract - was also described for the first time. Sushruta described 76 eye diseases and their treatment.

obstetrics in ancient India it was considered an independent field of healing. Sushruta's treatise details advice to pregnant women on cleanliness and proper living; deviations from the normal course of labor, fetal deformity, caesarean section (used after the death of a woman in labor to save the baby), fetal rotation on a leg and embryotomy (which was recommended in cases of impossibility of turning the fetus on a leg or head) are described.

Hygienic traditions long developed in ancient India. The first attempts were made to prevent contagious diseases, including smallpox. Great importance was attached to personal hygiene, beauty, neatness of the body, cleanliness of the home, the influence of climate and seasons on human health.

Empirically developed hygiene skills are also enshrined in the "Laws of Manu":

“One should never eat food ... of the sick, neither on which the hair of insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.”

“Let him not bathe either after eating, or when he is sick, or in the middle of the night ... or in an untested pond” -

“It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing rites far from the dwelling.”

“In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, rub your eyes with collyrium and honor the gods.”

“Having cut hair, nails and a beard, humble, in white clothes, clean, let him always be engaged in the study of the Vedas and deeds useful to him,” etc.

In cities and villages, it was forbidden to throw sewage into the streets. The places and methods of burning the corpses of the dead were regulated. In doubtful cases of human death, an examination (autopsy) was prescribed; the body of the deceased was examined and covered with special oil in order to prevent decomposition. Severe penalties were also established for mixing poisons in food, medicines and incense.

Urban planning in the classical period of Indian history did not reach that high level which distinguished the ancient Indus civilization.

In ancient India, earlier than in Western Europe, there were almshouses (at Buddhist temples) and rooms for the sick - dharmashala (hospitals).

Physician position in ancient India was not the same at the stages of history. In the Vedic period, the practice of medicine was not reprehensible. In the final period of the history of the Ancient World, with the development of the caste system and social inequality, the tendency to consider certain occupations as ritually "unclean" and those engaged in them as untouchable intensified. This applied to those caring for horses and chariots, carpenters, healers (in all likelihood, those who were involved in surgery and were associated with ritual "impurity"), conjurers, acrobats, dancers, etc. Nevertheless, in general, the practice of medicine is spoken of with great respect in the ancient texts.

An important role in the development of healing in ancient India was played by monasteries and monks, among whom there were many knowledgeable healers. All the monks had some knowledge in the field of medicine, since it was considered a high virtue to provide medical assistance to the laity.

Medicine in ancient India was closely connected with religious and philosophical teachings, among which a special place is occupied by yoga. She combined religious philosophy, moral and ethical teachings and a system of posture exercises. Much attention in yoga is paid to the purity of the body and a peculiar way of life.

Among medical education centers Taxila occupied a special place in ancient India. A student of medicine had to master all the facets of medical art: “A doctor, inexperienced in operations, comes to a patient’s bed with confusion, like a cowardly soldier who first got into battle; the doctor, who only knows how to operate and neglects theoretical information, does not deserve respect and can endanger even the lives of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with only one wing,” says the Sushruta Samhita.

At the end of the training, the teacher gives a sermon to his students, which is given in the Charaka Samhita.

“If you want to achieve success in your activities, wealth and fame and heaven after death, you should pray every day, rising from sleep and going to sleep, for the well-being of all beings, especially cows and brahmins, and you should wholeheartedly strive for healing sick.

You must not betray your patients even at the cost of your own life...

You must not drink, you must not do evil or have evil companions...

Your speech should be pleasant...

You must be reasonable, always strive to improve your knowledge.

When you go to the home of the sick, you must direct your words, thoughts, mind, and feelings to nothing but your sick person and his cure....

Nothing that happens in the house of a sick person should be told elsewhere, and the condition of the sick person should not be told to anyone who, using the knowledge gained, could harm the sick person or another.

Right medical practice gave the raja. He also controlled the activities of healers and compliance with medical ethics.

medical ethics Ancient India strictly demanded that the healer, “who wants to be successful in practice, be healthy, neat, modest, patient, wear a short-cropped beard, diligently brushed, trimmed nails, white clothes scented with incense, leave the house only with a stick and an umbrella, in particular avoided chatter ... ".

Remuneration for treatment was forbidden to demand from the disadvantaged, friends of the doctor and brahmins; and vice versa, if wealthy people refused to pay for treatment, the healer was awarded their property. For improper treatment, the healer paid a fine depending on the social status of the patient.

Unlike the great civilizations of the Middle East (Mesopotamia and Egypt), the Indian civilization (like the Chinese) did not die - it continued its progressive development after the era of the Ancient World. In the Middle Ages, Indian doctors were famous all over the world, and Indian medicine had and continues to have a great influence on the development of medicine in various regions of the globe.

Peculiarities of medicine in ancient China (middle of the 2nd millennium BC—III century AD).

The most ancient state in the history of China, Shang (later it was called Shang-Yin) was formed somewhat later than the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and India - in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. in the Yellow River Valley - Huang He.

The creation of Chinese hieroglyphic writing dates back to this time. Ancient China gave the world silk and china, paper and ink for writing, a compass and black powder. Paper was invented in China in the 1st century BC. BC.

For millennia, China has provided a unique example of stability. national culture and traditional medicine.

?
Topic: Medicine in ancient India.
Plan
I Introduction
1. The history of the formation of India.
2. Periodization of the history of healing in ancient India.
II. Magical healing of the Vedic period.
1. Religious and philosophical writings of ancient India - the Vedas.
2. Medical deities of the Vedic period.
3. The social structure of ancient India.

III. Natural scientific knowledge and healing in the classical period.

2. Monuments of ancient Ayurvedic literature: "Charaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samhita".
3. Medicinal plants in ancient India.
4. Hygienic traditions in ancient India.
5. Surgery in ancient India.
6. The position of the doctor in ancient India
7. Religious and philosophical system of ancient India - yoga.
IV. General conclusions on this topic.

Now it is difficult to say where the first medical specialists appeared. Each ancient state is ready to challenge this, stating that it was on their lands that science was formed. However, historians, like other scientists, are increasingly inclined to believe that it is India that can claim the title of the first "medical" power. Ancient India was considered a versatile state. Numerous philosophers and researchers acted here. Therefore, it is no coincidence that ancient state a simple interest in nature and other knowledge grew into science.

The ancient and original civilization of India developed in the III millennium BC. e. within the Hindustan subcontinent long before the appearance of the Indo-Iranian (Aryan) tribes in the country. The peoples who inhabited the valley of the river. Indus, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC created an original culture that was not inferior to the culture of Ancient Egypt and the states of Mesopotamia. At present, it has modern states: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal. The history of ancient India should be divided into several periods, each of which has its own specifics. Accordingly, the state of medicine in each of these periods had its own characteristics.

In her book "The History of World Medicine" Sorokina T.S. identifies three stages in the history of healing in ancient India, separated both in time and space:
1) the period of the Harappan civilization (III - the beginning of the II millennium BC, the valley of the Indus River), when the first slave-owning city-states in the history of ancient India were formed on the territory of modern Pakistan;
2) the Vedic period (the end of II - the middle of the I millennium BC, the valley of the Ganges), when with the advent of the Aryans the center of civilization moved to the eastern part of the subcontinent and the compilation of "sacred texts" (Sanskrit - Veda) began to be transmitted during a long period in the oral tradition;
3) the classical period (the second half of the 1st millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium
n. e., Hindustan subcontinent) - the time of the highest flourishing of the traditional culture of ancient INDIA. It is characterized by the high development of agriculture, crafts and trade, the rise of an original culture, the establishment and spread of Buddhism, the first of the three world religions, successes in various fields of knowledge, literature and art, the wide development of India's trade and cultural ties with the countries of the ancient world, which brought her the glory of the "Land of the Wise Men".
I will dwell on the last two stages in the history of medicine in ancient India.

In India, medicine has developed significantly, but its ancient history cannot be accurately described, since information about it has been preserved only in the form of legends.
The main sources are ancient literary monuments, religious and philosophical works - the Vedas (I millennium BC). Hence the name of the period - Vedic. Indications of medical knowledge in this period were preserved in the Rigveda (Rigveda - Veda of hymns and mythological stories, whose oral tradition dates back to the 12th-10th centuries. BC e.) and "Atharvaveda" ("Atharva-veda" - Veda of spells and conspiracies, VIII-VI centuries BC). Write down sacred texts began in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. (c. 500 BC).
The Rigveda mentions three ailments: leprosy, consumption, bleeding, and once it is said about the healer in the following words: "Our desires are different, the carter craves firewood, the healer craves diseases, and the priest craves sacrificial libations." Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts about the rites of magical healing - in the Vedic period, medical knowledge was closely intertwined with conspiracies, spells, appeals to the gods, among which Indra was especially revered - the leader of the Indian pantheon, the king of the gods, the rainmaker, the thunderer and the organizer of the world. The hymns addressed to Indra contained prayers for sending down military victories, booty, wealth, male offspring, strength. He was asked for protection from enemies, illnesses, misfortunes.
The deities associated with medicine also included young healers - the Ashwin twins. In the Vedas, they controlled the morning and evening dawn, wandering through the sky along with Surya (the sun god) on a golden chariot. The brothers were revered as the first surgeons. No less powerful was the patron saint of hunters Rudra, who owned the secret of medicinal plants. Soma, an intoxicating drink used in sacrificial rituals, is named after the god Soma, who was revered in India as the god of the moon. The most influential was the god of fire and resurgent life with nice name Agni.

In the vast ancient Indian mythology, there were also evil demons (asuras and rakshasas), who (as they believed) brought people misfortunes, illnesses, ruin, and deprived of offspring. Thus, in the Atharva Veda, diseases are either associated with evil spirits, or are regarded as a punishment of the gods; the cure of ailments was explained by the action of sacrifices, prayers and spells. At the same time, the Atharvaveda also reflects the practical experience of the people in the use of medicinal plants, the action of which at that time was understood as a healing force that counteracts evil spirits. The ancient healers were called so - bhishaj ("exorcist"). This name was retained by them in later periods of the history of India, when the healer-exorcist turned into a healer-healer. Over time, ideas about the causes of diseases have also changed. So, in the "Yajurveda" ("Yajurveda" - Veda of sacrificial spells, VIII-VII centuries BC), four body juices are already mentioned.
The slave system in India developed in the III millennium BC, and the stratification of society occurred in a unique way. Instead of "traditional" slaves and slave owners in India, there were four main classes (varnas):
brahmins (brahma-pa - knowing sacred teachings, i.e. priest),
kshatriyas (ksatriya- endowed with power, i.e. military nobility and members of royal families),
vaishyas (vaisya - a free community member, i.e. mainly farmers and cattle breeders)
and Shudras (sud-ga - disenfranchised poor).
Each of the varnas consisted of many castes and podcasts (Portuguese casto - pure; in Sanskrit jati - a group of people of the same origin). In addition, outside the varnas and, as it were, outside the law, there was a fifth, lowest class - pariahs (untouchables), used in the most unpleasant and humiliating jobs.
This social structure of ancient India, based mainly on the division of functions, was considered the original, unshakable, established by the divine will of Brahma - the greatest of the ancient gods. Shudras and pariahs had practically no rights. They were not allowed to hear and repeat the Vedas. Only representatives of the upper classes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas - had the privilege to engage in medical art.

In the VI century. BC e. ancient India entered the classical period of development. It is characterized by major achievements in various fields of knowledge and the creation outstanding monuments ancient Indian writing: "Prescriptions of Maku" (II century BC - II century AD), mathematical, astronomical and medical treatises (first centuries of our era), as well as the emergence and spread of religious - philosophy- Buddhism (since the 6th century BC) - the first world religion.
By this time, a developed system of medical knowledge had developed in India, “in some respects similar to the system of Hippocrates and Galen, and in some respects gone even further ahead,” as the English Indologist Arthur Basham wrote about it. At the heart of Indian medicine lay the position of the integrity of the human body. It was believed that only the whole complex of physical, mental and mental states of a person determines his illness or health. Modern definitions of the concepts of "health" and "disease", proposed by the World Health Organization in 1957, do not fundamentally differ from the conclusions of the ancient Indians. It was not the disease that was affected, but the patient himself, with his individual character habits and predispositions. The tactics of treatment was determined primarily by the curability or incurability of the disease. With a favorable prognosis, the healer took into account the characteristics of the disease, season, age, temperament, strength and mind of the patient. Treatment was based on diet, drug therapy, and surgery. Interestingly, the treatment of the disease did not stop with recovery. The doctor was obliged to continue monitoring the patient further in order to reliably ensure the full restoration of body functions, which guarantees health and active longevity. Fundamentals of traditional medicine for a long time passed from teacher to student orally. Much later, the medical experience was summarized and recorded under the name Ayurveda. Translated from the ancient Indian language of Sanskrit, “ayu” means “life”, and “veda” means “to know”. Ayurveda was considered a science, by the knowledge of which life could be extended and the nature of life could be known. Ayurveda describes the properties of more than a thousand medicinal plants, provides a wide variety of methods and methods of treatment - from psychotherapy to surgical intervention, contains extensive theoretical material.
In the classical period of the history of ancient India, healers moved away from the supernatural ideas about the causes of diseases that prevailed in the Vedic period. Religious and philosophical systems, on which they were based in search of the foundations of the universe, also revealed elements of natural scientific knowledge. Man was considered in close connection with the surrounding world, which, according to the ancient Indians, consisted of five elements: earth, air, fire, water and ether. The different quality of objects was explained by the different combination of the smallest particles of anu (“atoms”).
Philosophers, scientists, doctors of Ancient India believed that the Universe and the human body are based on three main primary elements, which determine the existence of the cosmos and man - wind (vayu), bile (pitta) and phlegm (kapha). The wind in nature is the carrier of light, coolness, sound propagating in space, rapidly rushing streams, and inside the human body it controls blood circulation, digestion, excretion and metabolism. Bile is represented in space by fire, and in the body it causes "natural heat", maintains body temperature and ensures the activity of the digestive organs and the activity of the heart muscle. Phlegm in the Universe and man was associated with all sorts of "soft" substances. It was associated with lubricating oil, which coats all solid and rough substances and facilitates their movement and interaction. Health was understood as the result of a balanced ratio of three substances, the correct fulfillment of vital functions, the normal state of the sense organs and clarity of mind, and the disease was understood as a violation of these correct ratios and the result of the negative impact on a person of the five elements, which included the seasons, climate, "indigestible" food, "unhealthy" water and depressed negative emotions. For example, it was believed that the suppression of fear leads to "disorders in the kidneys", anger - to "disturbances of the heart." For emergency control of diseases, five main methods of removing harmful substances from the body were used: therapeutic vomiting, laxatives, medicinal enema, drug administration through the nose and bloodletting. Auxiliary therapeutic methods were acupuncture, heliotherapy (treatment sunlight), hirudotherapy (treatment with leeches), etc.
According to the expert in the field of traditional medicine of India, Dr. Anand Kumar Keswani, “... Ayurveda remains a living science to this day, as millions of people in India are treated according to its prescriptions. It is difficult to label a knowledge system that has stood the test of centuries as unscientific.”
Buddhist texts brought to us the glory of the Indian healers Charaka and Sushruta, who expounded their knowledge in the treatises "Charaka-samhita" and "Sushruta-samhita" (I-II centuries AD). The original Sushruta Samhita, which has not survived to this day, according to some sources, could have been compiled much earlier - in the 6th century BC. BC. Both treatises are written in prose and verse, with poetry predominating. Six weighty volumes of "Charaka-samhita" are devoted to the treatment of internal diseases and contain information on more than 600 medicines of plant, animal and mineral origin. Their use is reported in several sections: the treatment of wounds, the treatment of diseases of the head region, the treatment of diseases of the whole body, the treatment of mental illness, the treatment of childhood diseases, antidotes. The most valuable information is contained in the chapters "Elixirs against senile decrepitude" and "Means that increase sexual activity." "Sushruta Samhita" is devoted mainly to surgical treatment: it describes more than 300 operations, 125 surgical instruments and at least 650 medicines. Despite the imperfect research technique, the knowledge of Indian healers in the field of anatomy was the most complete in the ancient world. The Indians, in particular, knew 500 muscles, 900 ligaments, 90 tendons, 300 bones (they also included teeth and cartilage as bones), 107 joints, and so on. For comparison: modern anatomy knows more than 600 muscles, 200 bones and 230 joints. In his treatise, Sushruta perfectly expounded human physiology, long before Harvey describing the circulation of blood, long before Pavlov - the secretion of gastric juice. It is curious that the autopsy of corpses for the purpose of studying them never met with any opposition in ancient India. Diagnosis of diseases was based on a detailed questioning of the patient (now doctors call it taking an anamnesis) and the study of body heat, skin color and tongue, type of discharge, assessment of noise in the lungs, voice, etc. It is interesting that neither Sushruta nor Charaka report anything about the study of the pulse. At the same time, Sushruta describes "sugar diabetes" unknown even to the ancient Greeks, which he determined by the taste of urine. Sushruta presented in detail the causes and mechanisms of development of about 1200 different diseases. It was Sushruta (presumably the 6th century BC), and not Cornelius Celsus (I-II centuries AD), as was believed until recently, that one can really find the first historical description local inflammatory process. Signs initial stage inflammation Sushruta considered minor pains, the second period - shooting pains, swelling, a feeling of pressure, local heat, redness and dysfunction. Celsus named four signs of inflammation, which in Latin sound like tumor, rubor, color, dolor (swelling, redness, local heat, pain), and Galen added a fifth - functia laesa (impaired function). The third stage of inflammation Sushruta characterized by a decrease in swelling and the formation of pus. For the treatment of inflammation, he suggested local medicines and surgical methods.
The fame of the healing properties of Indian plants spread far beyond the borders of Ancient India: they were brought to Parth by sea and land trade routes.
etc.................

Periodization of medical history:

1) Indian civilization (XXIII - XVIII centuries BC, Indus River valley) - proto-Indian civilization, the oldest in South Asia.

2) the Vedic period (XIII-VI centuries BC, the Ganges river valley).

3) Buddhist (V - III centuries BC) and classical (II century BC - V century AD).

characteristic features of the sanitary business of the period The Indian civilizations are:

1. monumental architecture,

2. planned development of cities,

3. high level of their sanitary improvement,

4. development of artificial irrigation,

5. development of crafts (ceramics, metal and stone products),

6. creation of proto-Indian writing.

The construction of cities in the Indus Valley was carried out according to a predetermined plan. In different parts of the city there were wells lined with burnt bricks. Residential houses were also built of burnt bricks. Drainpipes through the thickness of the walls went into the sewage system of the city. No other ancient civilization, even the Roman one, had such a perfect drainage system.

Its causes, according to researchers, were internal phenomena (floods, droughts, depletion of internal resources), the penetration of more backward tribes into the Indus Valley.

Intelligence about the healing of the Vedic period are very limited. Thus, only three ailments are mentioned in the Rigveda: leprosy, consumption, and bleeding. Some sections of the Rigveda contain texts about the rituals of magical healing - the healing knowledge of the Vedic period was closely intertwined with religious beliefs and magical rites.

In the Vedic religion, there are mythological characters who are directly or indirectly associated with ideas about healing, health and illness. Important deities were considered Agni - the god of fire, hearth, mediator between gods and people, and Surya - the deity of the Sun and the all-seeing eye of the gods. The main deity of the Vedic religion was considered Indra - the god of thunder and lightning, the king (raja) of the gods, the generous patron of people; the embodiment of strength, courage and fertility. Along with good deities in ancient Indian mythology, there were also evil spirits and demons: asuras and rakshasas - enemies of gods and people, as well as pichashas - who brought misfortune, illness, ruin and deprived of offspring.

ancient healers so they were called bhishaj("exorcist"). This name was retained by them in the later periods of the history of ancient India, when the healer-caster turned into a healer-healer. Over time, ideas about the causes of diseases have also changed. Thus, the Yajurveda mentions the juices of the body.

By the beginning of our era in ancient India, a highly developed traditional healing system - Ayurveda (ayurveda - the doctrine of long life).

In ancient times, the outstanding figures of traditional Indian medicine were the legendary healers Charaka (I-II centuries AD) and Sushruta (about IV century AD) - the authors of two classic Ayurvedic treatises: "Charaka Samhita" (dated from I-II centuries AD), which describes the treatment of internal diseases, and "Sushruta Samhita" (dated from the 4th century AD), which is largely devoted to surgical healing.

The knowledge of Indian healers in the field of the structure of the human body played a significant role in the development of ancient Indian surgery.

Bile is represented in nature by fire, and in the body it causes "natural heat", maintains body temperature and ensures the activity of the digestive organs and the activity of the heart muscle.

The tactics of treatment in Ancient India, as in other countries of the Ancient World, was determined, first of all, by the curability or incurability of the disease. With a favorable prognosis, the healer took into account the characteristics of the disease, the season, age, temperament, strength and mind of the patient (they said that “fools are more easily cured, because they follow the advice more accurately”).

Only healers were involved in the preparation of medicines, poisons and antidotes (for snake bites).

The art of surgical treatment (surgery) in ancient India, in terms of its skill and effectiveness, it was the highest in the ancient world (it was famous in all countries and in the Middle Ages).

Still without scientific knowledge about antisepsis and asepsis, Indian healers, following the customs of their country, have achieved careful observance of cleanliness during operations.

Surgical instruments were made by experienced blacksmiths from steel, which they learned to produce in India in ancient times. They were stored in special wooden boxes.

Wounds were bandaged linen, silk and woolen fabrics soaked in melted cow butter, as well as bandages made of leather and palm bark. Used for seams linen and tendon threads and horsehair.

The healers of Ancient India performed amputations of limbs, laparotomies, stone, hernia repair, plastic surgery, stitched wounds on the head, face, and even the windpipe. The plastic surgeries of the ancient Indians deserve special attention. They “knew how to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in battle or by sentence. In this area, Indian surgery was ahead of European surgery until the 18th century.

In ancient Indian texts, the operation of removing a clouded lens - a cataract - was also described for the first time. Sushruta described 76 eye diseases and their treatment.

Empirically developed hygiene skills are also enshrined in the "Laws of Manu":

“One should never eat food ... of the sick, neither on which the hair of insects turned out, nor deliberately touched by the foot ... nor pecked by a bird, nor touched by a dog.”

“Let him not bathe either after eating, or when he is sick, or in the middle of the night ... or in an untested pond” -

“It is necessary to remove urine, water used for washing feet, leftover food and water used in cleansing rites far from the dwelling.”

“In the morning you need to get dressed, bathe, brush your teeth, rub your eyes with collyrium and honor the gods.”

“Having cut hair, nails and a beard, humble, in white clothes, clean, let him always be engaged in the study of the Vedas and deeds useful to him,” etc.

Urban planning in the classical period of Indian history did not reach the high level that distinguished the ancient Indus civilization.

In ancient India, earlier than in Western Europe, almshouses (at Buddhist temples) and rooms for the sick - dharmashala (hospital) appeared.

Among medical education centers Taxila occupied a special place in ancient India. A student of medicine had to master all the facets of medical art: “A doctor, inexperienced in operations, comes to a patient’s bed with confusion, like a cowardly soldier who first got into battle; a doctor who knows only how to operate and neglects theoretical information does not deserve respect and can endanger even the lives of kings. Each of them owns only half of his art and is like a bird with only one wing,” says the Sushruta Samhita.

At the end of the training, the teacher gives a sermon to his students, which is given in the Charaka Samhita.

You must not betray your patients even at the cost of your own life...

You must not drink, you must not do evil or have evil companions...

Your speech should be pleasant...

You must be reasonable, always strive to improve your knowledge.

When you go to the home of the sick, you must direct your words, thoughts, mind, and feelings to nothing but your sick person and his cure....

The Raja gave the right to practice medicine. He also controlled the activities of healers and compliance with medical ethics.

Similar information.