Some features of the turning point between Baroque and Classicism in Russian architecture. Baroque and classicism - mentality, worldview and style of the 17th century

Classicism (from the Latin classicus – exemplary) – artistic style and the direction in the art of Europe in the 17th – 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, main goal which educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to. Culture served as such an example. ancient world. The rules and canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

History of origin

As a movement, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

Classicism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

1. Early classicism(1760s – early 1780s);
2. Strict classicism(1780s – 1790s);
3. Late classicism, called (the first 30 years of the 19th century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - shining example classicism.

Style features

Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high-quality materials, noble finishes and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinctive features of classicism. later displayed in minimalist interiors.

General style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

The peculiarities of the Russian classic style were calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time varied decorative design, precise proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste.

Exterior

The external signs of classicist architecture are clearly expressed and can be identified at the first glance at the building.

• Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
• Shapes: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
• Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, smooth pattern.
• Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
• Roof: complex, intricate shape.
• Predominant colors: rich white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
• Characteristic elements: restrained decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble staircase, balconies.
• Windows: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upward, modestly decorated.
• Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
• Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior

The interior of the premises of the classicism era contains nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, and exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly valuable wood, marble, stone, and silk.

• Ceilings: light, tall, often multi-level, with stucco and ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, camsha, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with candle-shaped shades.
• Mandatory interior attributes: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low armchairs, low tea tables, light carpets self made, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive floor vases stylized as antiquity, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture from the Classical era is distinguished by its quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. The dishes are porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern and gilding. A secretary with a cubic body on high legs was considered one of the most important attributes of furniture.

Architecture

Classicism turned to the fundamentals of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in design. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, proportionality of the created composition, regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces and garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the shape of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented stairs, classic antique decor, a dome in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire style) acquires military symbols (“ Arc de Triomphe"in France). In Russia it is canon architectural style classicism can be called St. Petersburg, in Europe - these are Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying military valor and wisdom became widespread. statesmen. Moreover, the main solution for sculptors was the image model famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among individuals to commission sculptors tombstones to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to appear in the 80s years XVIII century. This was especially evident in women's suit. A new ideal of beauty emerged in Europe, one that celebrated natural forms and the beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics in light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.

Women's dresses lost frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, pleated tunics, cut at the sides and tied with a belt under the bust. They were worn over flesh-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as footwear. Hairstyles have been copied since antiquity. Powder, which was used to cover the face, hands, and décolleté, is still in fashion.

Accessories included either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.

WITH early XIX centuries, formal dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Fashion includes short-cropped hair, curled into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.

Men's fashion developed under the influence of the British. English cloth tailcoats, redingotes (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabots and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of form are line and light and shade. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures and divides the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the 17th century. – Lorraine Claude, famous for his “ideal landscapes.” Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the “decorative landscapes” of the French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who defined further development musical art.

Literature

The literature of the classic era promoted reason conquering feelings. The conflict between duty and passions is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Language reforms have been carried out in many countries and the foundations have been laid poetic art. Leading representatives of the direction are Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. Most bright representative literature of the era of Russian classicism - M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this direction.

The "Golden Age" is considered the era of classicism for theatrical arts, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just act, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of declamation.

Personalities

Among the brightest classicists one can also highlight such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Khemnitser (literature).

Video review of classicism

Conclusion

Ideas from the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, furniture made of natural wood. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style still characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later another appears, which marked the arrival new era- This . was a combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development artistic culture. It became not only a century of science, but also a century of art. True, taking into account the fact that the blossoming of science had only just begun, while art had already reached its apogee. Nevertheless, the sky above him is still clear and cloudless. His prestige in society is unusually high. According to the number of great artists XVII century, apparently surpasses all others, including the Renaissance. Moreover, if during the Renaissance Italy has no equal in the field of art, then in the 17th century. art is on the rise in everyone European countries, and France now looks preferable.

Like other areas of culture, art has experienced the effects of differentiation. Its isolation becomes more and more prominent and distinct. Even the connection with religion is noticeably weakened. As a result, religious and mythological subjects get rid of excessive pathos and are filled with deep vitality and naturalness.

Another consequence of differentiation is that among artists the universal personalities characteristic of the era disappear. was not only a brilliant artist, but also a great scientist, thinker, and inventor. Although to a lesser extent, the same can be said about L. Alberti, F. Brunelleschi. Piero della Francesche, F. Rabelais and others. Now such large-scale figures are becoming rare. At the same time, there is an increase in the subjective principle in art. It manifests itself in an increasing number of bright individuals, in greater creative freedom and courage, and in a broader view of things.

Within art there is also a process of differentiation, changes existing genres and new ones arise. IN painting Landscape and portrait become completely independent genres, in which psychologism is enhanced. Still life and images of animals appear. The importance of originals is increasing compositional solutions, color, picturesqueness, flavor.

IN music opera is born. The creator of this genre is Italian composerC. Monteverdi (1567-1643), wrote the opera "Orpheus", which was staged in 1607 and became a real masterpiece opera art. For the first time, music in it not only complements poetry, but is the main actor, expressing the meaning of everything that happens on stage. In addition to opera, cantatas and oratorios also appear in music.

The main styles in the art of the 17th century. Baroque and classicism appear. Some art historians believe that at the same time realism emerged as a special style in art, but this point of view is disputed, although the existence of a realistic tendency is recognized.

Baroque

Baroque occurs in late XVI V. in Italy. The word “baroque” itself means “strange”, “bizarre”. The Baroque style is characterized by dynamic images, tension, brightness, elegance, contrast, the desire for grandeur, pomp and pomp, a synthesis of arts, a combination of reality and illusion, increased emotionality and sensuality. Baroque was the style of the aristocratic elite of the outgoing feudal society, the style of Catholic culture.

A prominent representative of the Italian Baroque is the Roman architect, sculptor and painter L. Bernini (1598-1680). His work embodied all the most characteristic features style - both strong and weak. Many of his works were concentrated in the main monument of Catholic Rome - the Cathedral of St. Petra. Under its dome, built by the great Michelangelo, rises a grandiose monumental and decorative structure - a thirty-meter canopy, and in the altar - an equally majestic marble pulpit of Peter, decorated with gold and figures depicting angels and cupids, church fathers and saints.

An even more magnificent creation of Bernini was the grandiose colonnade, consisting of 284 columns, placed in four rows and framing a huge square in front of the Cathedral of St. Petra. Bernini's most significant sculptural works are considered to be “Apollo and Daphne” and “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa."

The most famous figure of the European Baroque is Flemish artistP. Rubens (1577-1640). He can rightfully be called a universal personality, not inferior in scale to the titans of the Renaissance. He was close to humanists and was fond of the classics of Antiquity - Plutarch. Seneca, Horace, knew six languages, including Latin. Rubens was not a scientist or inventor, but he understood the problems of astronomy and archeology, and showed interest in watches without a mechanism, in the idea perpetual motion, followed the latest developments in philosophy, understood politics and actively participated in it. Most of all he loved human life itself.

Rubens embodied his commitment to humanism in his work. He became a great poet of a life filled with happiness, pleasure and lyricism. He remains an unsurpassed singer of human - male and especially female flesh, sensual beauty human body. Only Rubens could, with such courage and love, convey the beauty of the flesh itself, its gentle warmth, soft pliability. He managed to show that flesh can be beautiful without having a beautiful form.

One of the central themes of his work is woman, love and the child as a natural and beautiful fruit of love. This side of his work can be seen and felt in such films as “Venus and Adonis”. "Juno and Argus", "Perseus and Andromeda", "Bathsheba".

While in Italy, Rubens had a good art school. However, his Flemish temperament did not take everything from the great Italians. It is known that Italian masters preferred balance, calm and harmony, which allowed them to create eternal beauty. Rubens breaks all this in favor of movement. Portrayed by him human figures often resemble a compressed spring, ready to instantly unfold. In this regard, he is closest to Michelangelo, whose sculptures are full of internal tension and movement. His works are also filled with vigorous dynamism. These, in particular, are the paintings “The Battle of the Amazons”, “The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus”, “Lion Hunt”, “Boar Hunt”.

In Rubens's works, color and picturesqueness prevail over drawing. Here Titian serves as his example. Rubens does not like too clear contours. It seems to separate matter from form, making it free, alive and carnal. As for color, the artist prefers bright, clean and rich tones, filled with healthy vitality. He strives not so much for their harmony as for orchestration, to create a color symphony. Rubens is rightly called the great composer of color.

Classicism

Homeland classicism became France. If Baroque gives preference to feelings, then classicism rests on reason. The highest norm and ideal example for him is ancient art. Its main principles are clarity, orderliness, logical consistency, harmony and harmony.

According to classicism, the subject of art should be sublime and beautiful, heroic and noble. Art is supposed to express high moral ideals, glorify the beauty and spiritual wealth of man, glorify the triumph of conscious duty over the element of feelings. The judge of art is not only taste, but also reason.

Classicism shares the basic principles of rationalism and, above all, the idea of ​​a rational structure of the world. However, in understanding the relationship between man and nature, he differs from him, continuing the line of Renaissance humanism and believing that these relationships should be built on the principles of consent and harmony, and not domination and submission. This is especially true for art, one of the tasks of which is to glorify the harmony of man with beautiful nature.

The founder and main figure of classicism in painting is a French artist N. Poussin (1594-1665). In his work, he relies entirely on the rationalism of R. Descartes, believing that sensation is always partial and one-sided, and only reason can comprehend the subject comprehensively and in all its complexity. Therefore, reason must judge everything.

Poussin spent almost his entire life in Italy, but this did not stop him from becoming a truly French artist, who created one of the eye movements in art that exists to this day. From Italian masters greatest influence Raphael influenced him. whose works are ideal examples of complete perfection, as well as Titian, from whom all subsequent artists take lessons in pure picturesqueness.

Although Poussin gives preference to reason, his art cannot be called dry, cold and rational. He himself notes that the purpose of art is pleasure, that all the efforts of the artist are aimed at delivering aesthetic pleasure to the viewer. His works already contain two main elements of art, when it becomes a completely independent and self-sufficient phenomenon.

One of them is associated with plasticity, created by purely artistic, pictorial means, a combination of lines and colors, which constitutes a source of special, aesthetic pleasure. The second is associated with expression, expressiveness, with the help of which the artist influences the viewer and evokes in him the state of mind that he himself experienced.

The presence of these two principles allows Poussin to combine intellect and feeling. The primacy of reason is combined with his love of the flesh and sensuality. This is evidenced by his paintings “Venus and Adonis”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Bacchanalia” and others, where we see a person perfect in body and spirit.

In the initial period of Poussin’s creativity, canvases on historical and religious-mythological themes predominated. Such works as “The Rape of the Sabine Women”, “The Capture of

Jerusalem", "Arcadian Shepherds". Then the theme of harmony between man and nature comes to the fore. It is represented in the paintings “The Triumph of Flora”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, “Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice”, etc. Nature is not just a place for a person to stay. A deep sensory agreement is established between them, a certain community of souls, they form a single whole. Poussin created real symphonies of man and nature.

IN recent years In his life, the artist devotes all his attention to praising nature. He creates the poetry series "Seasons".

Classicism in architecture found its ideal embodiment in Palace of Versailles, built by the will of the French king Louis XIV. This grandiose ensemble includes three majestic palaces and a huge park with pools, fountains and sculptures. The ensemble is distinguished by its strict layout, geometric park alleys, majestic sculptures, trimmed trees and bushes.

Realism

realistic trend in the art of the 17th century. represents first of all Dutch artistRembrandt(1606-1669). The origins of this trend are in the work of the Italian painter Caravaggio (1573-1610), who had a great influence on many artists.

Rembrandt's art in some ways occupies a middle position between Baroque and Classicism. In his works one can find features of these two styles, but without the extremes inherent in each of them. In particular, his famous "Danae" looks very sensual and carnal, but not to the same extent as Rubens would have performed it. It's the same with classicism. Some of its features are present in Rembrandt's works, but there is no pure, idealized beauty in them, there is nothing majestic or heroic. no pathos, etc. In them everything seems to be closer to the ground, everything is much simpler, more natural, more truthful, more lifelike.

However, the main originality of Rembrandt’s art lies elsewhere. It lies in the fact that thanks to him a new direction arose in European painting - psychologism. Rembrandt was the first to seriously respond to the famous call of Socrates: “know yourself.” He turned his gaze inward, and a huge and unknown inner world, commensurate with the infinite Universe. The subject of his art is the inexhaustible wealth of human spiritual life.

Rembrandt seems to be peering and listening to the endless shimmers psychological states, inexhaustible manifestations of individual human character. Hence the abundance of not only portraits, but also self-portraits in which he depicts himself in different periods life - in youth and old age, in different states - full of vitality and after illness. In his works, the portrait not only becomes an independent genre, but also reaches unprecedented heights. All his work can be called art portrait.

This turn is largely explained by the fact that Rembrandt - unlike the Catholics Rubens and Poussin - was a Protestant. Before the advent of Protestantism, man did not consciously seek to separate himself from others. On the contrary, he did not think of himself outside the collective community. In Antiquity, such a community was supported by political and moral standards. During the Middle Ages, Christianity strengthened old foundations community of faith.

Protestantism violated this tradition, placing the main responsibility for a person’s fate on himself. Now the matter of salvation became, first of all, a personal matter for each individual. A profound shift occurred in the consciousness of Western man, and Rembrandt was the first to deeply feel the changes taking place and expressed them in his art.

ABOUT close attention Many works from the early period of Rembrandt’s work, and above all his self-portraits, speak to the secrets of one’s inner life, to the search for one’s own personal truth. This is also evidenced by his paintings such as “Apostle Paul in Prison”, “Christ in Emmaus”, etc., where psychological experiences and reflections on the meaning of life and existence come to the fore. IN mature period and especially after the famous "Night Watch" these trends are becoming even stronger. They appear especially vividly in the paintings “Portrait of an Old Man in Red” and “Portrait of an Old Lady.” The painting “The Syndics” becomes the pinnacle of the art of group portraiture.

IN last period Rembrandt's creativity plunges more and more into the depths of human consciousness. He invades a completely new problem for European art - the problem of human loneliness. An example of this is his paintings “The Philosopher” and “The Return of the Prodigal Son”.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………

Baroque……………………………………………………………

Classicism………………………………………………………..

Romanticism…………………………………………………………

Realism…………………………………………………………….

List of references………………………………

Introduction.

The history of art is characterized by a change of different styles and trends.

Under artistic style understand the totality of all means of artistic expression, all creative techniques, which as a whole form a certain figurative system.

Style as a single figurative system is based on the unity of ideological content, which gives rise to the unity of all elements of the artistic form, all artistic and expressive means. Thus, the word “style” denotes that visible, tangible originality that catches the eye first of all and by which one can immediately determine the difference between one phenomenon in art and others.

These phenomena themselves are infinitely diverse: we can talk about the style of an individual work or group of works, about an individual style, an author’s, about the style of certain countries, peoples, and geographic regions

However, most often the concept of “artistic style” refers to large, “historical” styles of certain eras, when the unity of socio-historical content determines the stable unity of artistic and figurative principles, means, and techniques.

In the field of art second half of the 17th century. there was a flourishing of style baroque, which was closely associated with the church and aristocratic culture of the time. It showed tendencies towards glorifying life, all the richness of real existence. Painting, sculpture, architecture, and baroque music glorified and exalted monarchs, the church, and the nobility.

A different kind of aesthetics, opposite to the artistic means of the Baroque, was canonized in European art and literature classicism. Closely associated with the culture of the Renaissance, classicism turned to ancient norms of art as perfect examples; it was characterized by rationalistic clarity and rigor.

First half of the 19th century became a time of intensive development of spiritual culture. Among its diverse manifestations, the most noticeable is romanticism, characterized by exceptional versatility. In the sphere of artistic creativity, it was clearly imprinted as a movement in literature, fine arts, music, and theater. At the same time, romanticism represented a certain worldview: the romantic direction developed in the field of philosophical and aesthetic ideas, historical science, arose romantic type personality and behavior.

In the 30s and 40s years XIX V. along with romanticism in fiction and painting, realism. The works of realist writers Balzac, Stendhal, Dickens, Thackeray and others are distinguished by their exceptionally wide coverage of reality and the predominance of social issues. The life of society in its most diverse manifestations, life, morals, and the psychology of people belonging to different classes have never received such a multifaceted reflection in literature.

Historical and cultural processes of the New Age - the development of capitalism, scientific and technological progress, a social system built on liberal democratic principles, the ideas and values ​​of the Enlightenment and positivism, the aesthetics of the great styles of the 17th–19th centuries (Baroque, Rococo, sentimentalism, classicism, romanticism, realism) - had a decisive influence on the formation of our modern world.

Baroque.

Baroque (Italian barocco - “vicious”, “loose”, “prone to excess”, port. perola barroca - “pearl” irregular shape"(literally "a pearl with a flaw"); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - a characteristic of European XVII-XVIII cultures centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphant march of “Western civilization.” Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, religious music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that occurred in the 16th century. Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. Man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing,” as Pascal put it, “someone who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

The Baroque era gives rise to huge amount time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - “carousels” (horse rides) and card games; instead of mystery plays there is a theater and a masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of swings and “fire fun” (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound.

The Baroque era rejects traditions and authorities as superstitions and prejudices. Everything that is “clearly and distinctly” thought or has a mathematical expression is true, says the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, Baroque is also the century of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word “baroque” is sometimes raised to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - baroco. The first European park appears in Versailles, where the idea of ​​a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn with a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. Uniformed armies of the Baroque era for the first time great attention They pay attention to “drilling” - the geometric correctness of formations on the parade ground.

Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, unceremoniousness, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that would become a virtue in the era of romanticism. The Baroque woman values ​​her pale skin and wears an unnatural, elaborate hairstyle, a corset and an artificially widened skirt with a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.

And the gentleman becomes the ideal man in the Baroque era - from English. gentle: “soft”, “gentle”, “calm”. Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and wear powdered wigs. What is the use of force if now one kills by pressing the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and the war of all against all.

Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​ennobling nature on the basis of reason. Not to endure need, but “to offer it gracefully in pleasant and courteous words” (Honest Mirror of Youth, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives no longer constitute the content of sin, but “the very essence of man.” Therefore, appetite is formalized in refined table etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in the opposite sex - in polite flirting, quarrels - in a sophisticated duel.

The Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​a sleeping God - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just as a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in any way in the affairs of the Universe. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true guardians of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles.” natural philosophy” (1689), and Carl Linnaeus systematizes biology in his System of Nature (1735). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established throughout European capitals.

The diversity of perception increases the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz. Galileo first points a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailing ships plow the expanses of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers became the literary symbols of the era: Captain Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.

Athenais de Montespan

Baroque style in painting characterized by the dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and originality of plots. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy floridity and dynamism; A striking example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.

Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio after his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings on religious subjects resemble realistic scenes of the author’s contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly outlining their characteristics. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who were initially called Caravaggists, and the movement itself Caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the violence of feelings and the characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) in early XVII V. studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing a course of study in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, scholarship and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved international recognition. With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was taken up by Frans Hals (1580/85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) worked in the manner of Caravaggio, and in France - Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new movement in his work - classicism.

For Baroque architecture(L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Often there are large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on the facades and in the interiors, volutes, a large number of braces, arched facades with bracing in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes take on complex shapes, often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic Baroque details - telamon (Atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to approximately 1620. Bernini was also an architect. He is responsible for the design of the square of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new late Baroque style appeared - Sicilian Baroque.

The quintessence of Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is considered the Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style became widespread in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or locally Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most elaborate version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the Baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and Baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. The term “Baroque classicism” is sometimes used in relation to the French and English versions of the Baroque. Nowadays the Palace of Versailles, together with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, and the building are considered French Baroque. French Academy in Paris and other works. They do have some classicist features. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening, an example of which is the Park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century. The French developed their own style, a variety of Baroque - Rococo. It did not manifest itself in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and paintings. The style was widespread throughout Europe and Russia.

In Belgium outstanding monument Baroque is the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels. Rubens' house in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features.

In Russia, baroque appeared in the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine baroque” (more restrained) began to develop in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, and reached its peak during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

In Germany, the outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sans Souci (authors: I. G. Bühring, H. L. Manter) and the Summer Palace there (G. W. von Knobelsdorff). The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria). In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Sarmatian Baroque and Vilna Baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative being Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among him famous projects- rebuilt Church of the Ascension (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Classicism.

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

The main feature of classicism architecture there was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia he moved in the same direction with Soufflot Bazhenov. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Music of the classic period or the music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music approximately between 1730 and 1820. The concept of classicism in music is firmly associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and who determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The impetus for the development of classic sculpture V mid-18th century century, the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities served, expanding the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors as naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche (1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)

In previous articles the words are often found "Baroque", "classicism", applicable to the architecture of buildings in the city of Tver .

The Baroque style is characterized by new complex species architectural forms, the splendor of details, the complexity of curvilinear forms, now new effects, elements of pretentiousness and luxury are used.

This artistic style originated in Italy, Rome and spread throughout Europe in the early 17th century. Baroque (bizarre, irregular, corrupted), possessing pomp, was the style of monarchies that reached their height at the beginning of the 17th century higher development. This one is the first european style Russia borrowed from the West and it took root well on Russian soil.

The first representative baroque In architecture and sculpture, the Italian architect Lorenzo Bernini is considered to be the great classic of this style.

« Eternal City“Rome owes it to him for the design appearance, his design of streets and squares and sculptural compositions still fascinate the viewer. The Baroque architect completely abandoned the strict rules and forms of Renaissance architecture.

Now simple regular shapes, square, circle, cross are being replaced by oval, other curvilinear shapes, their combination with trapezoid rectangles, etc. In general, many architectural details of the exterior and interior are changing.

Baroque architects widely use the play of light, its contrasts and shadows are used in decorative painting interiors. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes, and portraits and landscapes were used in interiors instead of icons.

The light becomes an important component when decorating interiors. On the canvases of the paintings the light seems to highlight important details especially bright, the play of light and shadow gives the picture special kind. The great masters Rubens and Rembrandt achieved perfection in the application of these effects.

In Russia, Baroque became widespread in the 17th century. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Baroque very quickly reached the peak of its heyday. One of the representatives of the masters baroque in Russia is rightfully Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli.

His great creation, the building of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, is an iconic representative of the Baroque. He is Italian by origin and worked in Russia since 1716. For almost half a century, stunning palaces, mansions and various religious buildings have been created in Russia. All of Rastrelli's buildings are distinguished by their spatial scope, clarity of volume, and rich sculptural decorations.

All his creations are works of art, as if made from a block of stone by a sculptor. Baroque architectural examples have been best preserved to this day. The general features of Baroque are the desire for movement, architects use all sorts of tricks - painting walls to resemble a landscape, mirrors, gilding, contrast of light and shadow. It is not without reason that the name baroque comes from the Portuguese word for an irregularly shaped pearl.

Classicism in architecture

New style, which originated in the depths of Baroque - classicism. Classicism (exemplary) is a new artistic style in art, literature of the 17th and 18th centuries and architecture.

The architecture of classicism contains monumentality, geometric shapes, clarity of layout, logic, clarity, and restraint of color. Classical architecture is architecture Ancient Greece and Rome. The greatest work ancient Greek classical architecture - Athenian Acropolis.

Many rules of classicism originate from ancient arts. These are appeals to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity and severity of forms. The heyday of classicism architecture in Russia occurred at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. The building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg is an architectural masterpiece of Russian classicism.

The architectural image of St. Petersburg and Moscow was created by a galaxy of great masters I.V. Starov, V.V. Bazhenov, . M.F. Kozakov. Classicism architecture reached an unprecedented rise during the reign of Catherine II.

In 1763, a government order was issued on the regular planning of provincial and district cities, as a result of which 400 cities were rebuilt. Magnificent buildings in Tver in the classicism and baroque style decorate the modern streets of our city.

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