The earliest architectural style. Architectural styles of different eras

March 2nd, 2017 03:00 pm

Of course, today there are many books where all historical periods, the entire history of Russian architecture, all styles and trends are described in detail.
But the nature of the Internet is such that many people want to understand common problems in one short note.
It is this review that I offer to the readers of the journal Architectural Style -

Briefly about the periods and styles of Russian architecture

1. Old Russian architecture
X - XVII century.
The history of ancient Russian architecture has seven centuries. Even a simple enumeration of all periods of development of Old Russian architecture is a huge research work. This path was so complex and diverse.
The architecture of Kyiv and Chernigov, the architecture of Novgorod the Great and Pskov, Smolensk and Polotsk. An independent and very bright Vladimir-Suzdal architecture developed in the North-Eastern part of Rus', in the Zalessky land. By the end of the XII century. in Rus', several architectural trends are being formed, although the general principles throughout Rus' were the same. In the XIII century. The Vladimir-Suzdal school was divided into two independent ones, one built in Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod and Yuriev-Polsky, the other - in Vladimir, Rostov and Yaroslavl. And, finally, the era of the centralized Russian state, which in the 15th-16th centuries united individual Russian lands around Moscow. The process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the formation of a single Russian state, influenced the formation of an all-Russian architectural tradition. The architecture of the 17th century was characterized by the complexity and picturesque compositions, diversity and richness of architectural details.
Among the works of Old Russian architecture there are no copies from foreign buildings, there is no mechanical imitation of the architecture of neighboring countries.

2. "Naryshkin" baroque
End of the 17th century
The first stage in the development of Russian baroque dates back to the era of the Russian kingdom, from the 1680s to the 1700s, called the Moscow, or "Naryshkin" baroque. this style(?) is its close connection with the already existing Russian traditions. Striving for patterns, picturesqueness and elegance, a kind of link between ancient Russian architecture and the new Baroque style.

Church of the Intercession in Fili, in Moscow, 1694

3. Style Baroque
1st half of the 18th century
The founding of St. Petersburg gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian architecture, begins new stage in the development of Russian baroque - Peter's baroque. It was an architectural style based on Western models. The largest building of this time is the Peter and Paul Cathedral. And despite the abundance of foreign architects, Russia is beginning to form its own architectural school. The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by simplicity of volumetric constructions, clarity of articulations and restraint of decoration, and a planar interpretation of facades. Later in Russia, a new direction is being developed - the Elizabethan baroque. Its appearance is most often associated with the name of the outstanding architect Rastrelli. The difference between this style and the Petrine one lies in its close connection with the traditions of the Moscow Baroque. Rastrelli designed majestic palace complexes in St. Petersburg and its environs - the Winter Palace, the Catherine Palace, Peterhof. The architect is characterized by the gigantic scale of buildings, the splendor of decorative decoration, the decoration of facades with the use of gold. The major, festive nature of Rastrelli's architecture left its mark on all Russian art. mid-eighteenth century. The original page of the Elizabethan Baroque is represented by the work of Moscow architects of the middle of the 18th century, headed by D.V. Ukhtomsky and I.F. Michurin. The main idea of ​​the Baroque is beauty, solemnity, grandiloquence, exaggerated pathos and theatricality.

Grand Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, 1752-1757, architect. V.V. Rastrelli

4. Style Classicism
2nd half of XVIII - early. 19th century

Classicism is an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Order became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions and restraint of decorative decoration. Russian classicism is a style in art that arose in Russia under Catherine II, who in a certain way strove for the Europeanization of Russia. The emergence of a new style was preceded by more than half a century of development domestic art New time, characterized by the predominance of baroque. Since the 60s of the 18th century, Russian architects have been designing and building buildings in the noble simplicity of classicism.

Pashkov House in Moscow, 1784-1788 arch. V.I. Bazhenov (?).

5. « National romantic» stage
1780 - 1800
In the second half of the 18th century, along with the leading classical direction, there was a short period, which later was most often called the “Gothic style”. This is the time of active creativity of V.I. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov, and their most famous building is the Tsaritsyno ensemble. Despite Catherine's instructions, our architects took as their starting point not Gothic, but Old Russian forms. Tsaritsyn is characterized by an intricate colorful play of white-stone details against the background of red-brick walls, reminiscent of the details and motifs of Russian architecture of the 17th century. In general, the works of this stage in the classical architectural school called the time of national-romantic quest.

Palace in Tsaritsyno, in Moscow, 1775 - 1785, architect. V.I.Bazhenov and M.F.Kazakov

6. Style Empire
1800 - 1840
"Imperial style" Empire is the final stage of classicism, with massive and monumental forms, rich decoration, with elements of military symbols.

The main headquarters in St. Petersburg, 1819-1829, arch. K.I.Rossi

7. Eclectic
1830 - 1890
A direction in architecture that focuses on the use of any form of the past in any combination in one building. Eclecticism rebelled against academic dogmas that demanded to follow the "eternal" laws of ancient architecture. Eclecticism itself cannot be a style, as it is a mixture of stages and styles of past years.
A few words about eclecticism

Assumption Church in St. Petersburg, 1896-1898, architect. G.Kosyakov

8. Style Modern
Late 19th century - 1917
The stylistic direction is associated with the use of new technical and constructive means, free planning to create emphasized individualized buildings. The term "Modern" defines architecture that has sharply rebelled against imitation. The slogan of modernity is modernity and novelty. Systems art forms, anything related to the order or "styles" of eclecticism - does not exist at all in modernity.
The principle of designing a building “outside-in”, characteristic of past styles, from the shape of the plan and volume to the internal arrangement of premises, is opposed in modernism by the opposite principle: “from inside-out”. The shape of the plan and facade is not set initially, it follows from the features of the internal planning structure.
About modern - http://odintsovgrigori.ucoz.ru/index/mod ern/0-255

Ryabushinsky's mansion in Moscow, 1900, architect F.O. Shekhtel

9. Retrospectivism
1905 - 1917
A very complex direction, a kind of parallel to late modernity. A direction based on the development of the architectural heritage of past eras, from ancient Russian architecture to classicism. The distinction between late modernity and retrospectivism is extremely difficult to draw. Examples of the three main currents in retrospectivism are -

9.1 - Neoclassicism
The building of the Kievsky railway station in Moscow resembles the famous buildings of Russian classicism and Empire. The symmetry of this solemn composition is enlivened by a square clock tower placed on the right corner. With sufficient rigor of architectural forms, the decorative decoration of the building is very diverse, with juicy "antique" motifs.

Kyiv railway station. 1914-1924, arch. I.I.Rerberg, V.K.Oltarzhevsky, with the participation of V.G.Shukhov.

9.2 - Neo-Russian style
Architecture researchers have expressed the opinion that the neo-Russian style is closer to modernity than to eclecticism, and this differs from " pseudo-Russian style in its traditional sense.
The building of the Loan Treasury combines business representativeness with the plasticity of the chambers of the 17th century. The shape of the front porch against the background of the diamond rustication of the wall enhances the decorative effect of the building. The decor is dominated by the motifs of the "Naryshkin baroque". However, the complete symmetry of the facade violates the "principles of modernity" and gives the building some eclecticism....

Loan treasury in Nastasinsky per. in Moscow. 1913-1916, arch. V.A. Pokrovsky and B.M. Nilus

9.3 - Neo-Gothic
The Catholic Cathedral on Malaya Gruzinskaya Street in Moscow is a three-nave cruciform pseudo-basilica. The main volume of the temple was built in 1901-1911, finishing work inside continued until 1917. According to various testimonies, some European gothic cathedrals. This Catholic cathedral has the largest organ in Russia and you can listen to organ music concerts.

Catholic Cathedral on M. Gruzinskaya street. 1901-1911, arch. F.O.Bogdanovich-Dvorzhetsky.

Styles......
It is impossible to fit on one sheet the entire centuries-old history of domestic architecture.
My task is more specific - to give a general, very schematic concept of how the styles of architecture changed from the second half of the 17th century to 1917.

And an important clarification about "Styles":
- In the history of architecture, the very concept "Architectural style" appeared relatively recently, and refers only to periods from the 18th century, from the Baroque style. Sometimes the Naryshkin baroque of the second half of the 17th century is also referred to as a style.
- TO Old Russian architecture the concept of “Style” is generally inapplicable, and an expression like “a church in the Novgorod style” refers to the colloquial genre, and nothing more!
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Literature:
- History of Russian architecture. - M.: Academy of Architecture of the USSR, Institute of History and Theory of Architecture, 1956.
- E.I. Kirichenko. Russian architecture of the 1830s-1910s. - M.: Art, 1982.

The architectural style that originated in medieval Europe is characterized by semicircular arches, which differ from Gothic lancet arches. Since examples of Romanesque architecture can be found throughout the European continent, this style is often regarded as the first pan-European architectural style since Roman times. In addition to semicircular arches, the direction is distinguished by massive forms, thick walls, strong supports, cross vaults and large towers. From the 6th to the 10th century, most churches and monasteries in Europe were built in this majestic style. We have selected for you 25 of the most breathtaking and impressive examples of Romanesque architecture that you simply must see!

Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, Gurk, Austria. 12th century

This basilica is considered one of the most important Romanesque buildings in the country. It has two towers, three apses, a crypt and galleries.

Notre Dame Cathedral, Tournai, Belgium. 17th century

Since 1936, it has been considered the main attraction and heritage of Wallonia. It is impossible not to note the heavy and serious character of the building, the Romanesque nave and the cluster of five bell towers and semicircular arches.

Rotunda of St. Longina, Prague. 12th century

Founded as a parish church in a small village near Prague, it was almost destroyed in the early 19th century but rebuilt later.

Cathedral of Saint Trophime, Arles, France. 15th century

One of the most important examples of Romanesque architecture in France.

Saint-Savin-sur-Hartampes, France. Mid 11th century

The church, which was included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1983, has a square tower and five ray chapels with a polygonal apse.

Bamberg Cathedral, Bamberg, Germany. 13th century

The church, founded in 1012 by Emperor Henry II, is known for its four imposing towers. The cathedral was partially destroyed by fire in 1081, but rebuilt by 1111.

Cathedral in Clonfert, Ireland. 12th century

The doorway of this cathedral is considered the crowning achievement of the Romanesque style. It is decorated with animal heads, leaves and human heads.

San Liberatore on Maiella, Abruzzo, Italy. 11th century

The facade of this abbey is an example of the Lombard-Romanesque architectural style.

Cathedral of Modena, Modena, Italy. 12th century

The cathedral is considered one of the most iconic Romanesque buildings in Europe and is a World Heritage Site.

Basilica of Saint Servatius, Maastricht, Netherlands. 11th century

The building is considered an example of various architectural styles, but predominantly Romanesque.

Doors of the cathedral in Gniezno, Poland. 12th century

Bronze doors are considered one of the most significant works of Romanesque art in Poland. They are decorated with bas-reliefs that show 18 scenes from the life of St. Wojciech.

Monastery of Peter and Paul, Kruszwica, Poland. 1120

This work of Romanesque art is built of sandstone and granite. It has a transept, a presbytery and an apse.

Andrew's Church, Krakow, Poland. 1079-1098 years

This church was created for defensive purposes. It is one of the few remaining examples of European fortified churches.

Lisbon Cathedral, Portugal. 1147

The most old church in Lisbon, which is a mixture of different styles and is famous for its Romanesque iron gates.

Cathedral of Saint Martin, Slovakia. 13th-15th century

The largest and most interesting Romanesque cathedral in Slovakia. Inside it are marble tombstones, and the walls are painted with scenes from the coronation of Charles Robert of Anjou.

Basilica of San Isidro, Leon, Spain. 10th century

Among the most notable features of the building are the arches that cross the transept and the carved tympanum.

Lund Cathedral, Sweden. 1145

The Romanesque style is expressed here in the layout, crypt and arched galleries.

Grossmunster, Zurich, Switzerland. 1100-1120 years

Romanesque Protestant church. It has a large carved portal with medieval columns.

Durham Cathedral, England. 1093

The building is notable for its unusual nave roof vaults, transverse arches and massive columns.

Dunnottar Castle, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. 15th-16th century

The ruined medieval fortress consists of three main wings set around a quadrangle and an unusual, intricate oak ceiling.

Cathedral of Salamanca, Spain. 1513-1733

Despite the fact that in the 17th century the cathedral was rebuilt and became Gothic, it retained most Romanesque style.

Wanchock Abbey, Wonchock, Poland. 1179

The abbey is recognized as one of the most precious monuments of Romanesque architecture in Poland.

Cathedral in Porto, Portugal. 1737

This is one of the oldest cathedrals in the city. It is flanked by two square towers supported by buttresses and surmounted by a dome.

Santa Maria Maggiore, Veneto, Italy. 11th century

The interior of this cathedral is decorated with amazing mosaics from the 9th century.

Cathedral of San Nicola di Trullas, Italy. 1113

The cathedral was built as a village school and then became a monastery with cross vaults and frescoes.

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Architectural styles in chronological order, starting from the time of the Ancient World, sorted out, wrote a few words about each, added examples, photos, videos, so that everything is easy to understand.

Styles in architecture and their features

Architectural styles are being formed features and properties of a historical period, region or country, which are manifested in the distinctive features of buildings and compositions, such as:

• purpose of buildings (temples, palaces, castles),
• structures and materials used in construction,
• composition techniques,
• lines and design of facades,
• plans,
• forms used.

Different styles arise in the specific conditions of the development of the economy and social structure. They are affected by:

• religious movements,
• statehood,
• ideological element,
• historical architecture and
• national differences,
• climate,
• landscape and relief.

Technical progress, ideological changes or geopolitical relations have always led and continue to lead to the birth of a new style.

Architectural styles of the archaic period

ancient egyptian style

This style gave rise to a huge variety of architectural structures and great monuments. , including on the Nile River, is evidence of the existence of one of the most outstanding civilizations in the world. The predominant building materials are sun-baked brick, limestone, sandstone and granite.

Architecture of Ancient Egypt: Pyramids of Giza

The understanding of the ancient Egyptian style by modern people is based on the surviving religious temples and massive, incomprehensible structures, with characteristic sloping walls that have a small number of holes, surrounded by mystery. It is widely believed that these are tombs, but there are other theories. Additional information about the architecture

Architectural styles of antiquity

Antiquity is Ancient Rome plus Ancient Greece.

ancient greek style

The Greeks built many temples for sacrifices to the gods. They laid the foundation for European architecture, which served as an example for the whole world. Their high-tech systems for proportion and style, using mathematics and geometry, created external harmony and beauty. Replacing wood with white marble and limestone back in the archaic era, the Greeks built noble and durable buildings. It can be divided into the following periods:

• archaic,
• classical,
• Hellenism.

Antique Greek architectural style: Temple of Hera (r. 460 BC) at Paestum, Italy (erroneously called Neptune or Poseidon).

ancient roman style

Ancient Roman architecture is a form of Etruscan architecture. This style is characterized by greatness, power and strength. The Greeks had a strong influence on it. It is distinguished by monumentality, a lot of decorations and magnificent decoration of buildings, strict symmetry.

The Romans built most buildings for practical purposes, not temples as in Greece. Read briefly. The history, applied materials, technologies and urban planning are described.

Ancient Roman Architectural Style: Pantheon, Santa Maria in Via Lata, Rome, Italy

Byzantine style

The capital of the Roman Empire was transferred by the Roman emperor Constantine I to the city of Byzantium (Constantinople) in 330 and became known as New Rome. Naturally, in the architecture of Byzantium, one can see strong influence ancient Roman style. At the same time, in terms of elegance and luxury, she sought to surpass the old Rome.

Byzantine style is a fusion Christian and ancient worldview with elements artistic culture East.
The empire expanded its territories at the expense of the former provinces of Rome in the west, where it erected monuments, palaces, temples, churches in order to show luxury and establish the status of the new imperial power.

Basilica of San Vitale in Byzantine style, Ravenna, Italy

• Buildings have become geometrically more complex.
• In addition to stone, brick and plaster were used to decorate the buildings.
• There is a looser attitude towards classical elements; carved decorations were replaced by mosaics.
• The simplicity and restraint of the exterior of the temples contrasted sharply with the magnificent precious mosaics, sparkling with gold, inside the premises.

Pre-Romanesque architectural styles

Pre-Romanesque or Pre-Romanesque architecture spans the times

• Merovingian kingdom (5th - 8th centuries),
• the era of the Carolingians (8 - 9 centuries) and
• Ottonian period (10th century) until the beginning of the 11th century, when the Romanesque style was born.

The main theme during this period is classical Mediterranean and early Christian forms in interaction with Germanic ones. They contributed to the emergence of new innovative designs. This, in turn, gave rise to the Romanesque architectural style.

Merovingian style

Merovingian architectural style: Cathedral of Saint-Leons, Fréjus, France

The period of distribution of this style falls on the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries, when the Frankish royal Merovingian dynasty ruled on the lands belonging to modern France, Belgium and partly Germany. This is the time of the baptism of the barbarians. Combines the traditions of the late antique Roman style and barbarian traditions.

Carolingian style in architecture

Pre-Romanesque architecture: typical Carolingian church in northern France Nova Corbeia

The Merovingian era was replaced by the Carolingian era (780-900). The Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th and 9th centuries is a style of pre-Romanesque architecture in northern Europe.

After becoming emperor, the German king Charlemagne wanted his empire to be as great as Rome before him. He sponsored art and financed building projects, mainly cathedrals and monasteries. Many of these buildings also served as schools as Charlemagne sought to create a large literate base for his empire.

Trying to consciously imitate Roman architecture, the Carolingian style borrowed many elements from early Christian and Byzantine architecture.

Ottonian style

Ottonian Church of Saint Cyriacus (960-965), Germany

The Ottonian period follows the Carolingian period and precedes the emergence of Romanesque architecture. Surviving examples of this style are found in Germany and Belgium. The Ottonian Renaissance (951-1024) originated in Germany during the reign of Otto the Great and drew inspiration from the Carolingian and Byzantine eras.

Respect for the mathematical sciences is expressed in the balance and harmony of the building elements. Most Ottonian churches make generous use of the round arch and have flat ceilings. The exterior of most basilicas resembles the Carolingian style, while the interior is early Christian.

Roman style

Romanesque buildings were built in Europe from about 1000 until the arrival of the Gothic style in the 12th century.

This style contains many of the main features of Roman and Byzantine architecture.

It personifies the construction of fortified castle cities with powerful walls, narrow windows and defensive moats around the fortifications, where bridges and city gates were guarded by guards, streets were blocked with chains at night.

The castle was usually built on a hill, which was of strategic importance for defense and observation. Towers - shelters served as decoration of the composition. Their shape could be round, four- or hexagonal with a pointed roof. The rest of the buildings of unpretentious geometric shape were located around it.

The most striking Romanesque style can be observed in temples connected to such towers, having semicircular doorways and windows. Galleries and outer walls of churches were decorated with decorative pillars connected by small arches.

Buildings in the Romanesque style look solid, durable and harmonious against the background of the surrounding nature.

Romanesque Church of San Millan, Segovia, Spain

Gothic style

Based on the Romanesque style, it arose with soaring spiers, pointed arches and carvings on religious themes. This style originated in northern France in the 12th century. It has become widespread in Austrian, German, Czech, Spanish, English cities.

In Italy, he took root with great difficulty and strong changes who laid the foundation for "Italian Gothic". At the end of the 14th century, this architectural style was transformed into the so-called "International Gothic".

Gothic cathedral in Lyon, France

For those interested in more detail in the article. The article describes the 6 most striking examples of Gothic in Europe. An example of radiant Gothic is given in the article about.

Architectural style Renaissance or Revival

The revival began in Italy and spread throughout Europe. The humanistic orientation of the period 1425-1660 was characterized by attention to human activity, and a revival of interest in antiquity.

In architectural buildings this is reflected in the arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels. Asymmetrical medieval features are replaced by semi-oval arches, hemispherical domes and niches (edicules). Ancient forms are returning to architecture again.

In the Renaissance there is a fusion of Gothic and Romanesque styles.
After the crisis of ideas in the 16th century, the Renaissance was replaced by Mannerism and Baroque.

Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in the architectural style of the Renaissance (Renaissance), Florence, Italy

Mannerism

The style replaced the late Renaissance with unstable moral, social and religious phenomena. In architecture, he expressed himself through the violation of the Renaissance balance, elements of the grotesque, the use of conceptual solutions that can cause a feeling of anxiety.

Example of Mannerism: Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, Rome, Italy

Some art historians call it early baroque. Origins: Florence, Rome and Mantua in Italy (it. maniera- manner). But most importantly, he became reflection of transformation medieval art in modern times.

Baroque

Architectural styles of classicism

At the end of an era Renaissance Palladio and Scamozzi (Italian architects) expressed in architectural language direction of classicism. The basis classical style: rationalism and the use of only functional details.

Architect A. Palladio. Villa La Rotonda, Vicenza, Italy. Classical style in architecture

Thanks to following strict canons, the buildings are different

• correct planning,
• clear forms,
• symmetrical compositions and
• restrained decoration.

The aestheticism of classicism was supported by large-scale urban development projects, which resulted in the streamlining of urban developments.

IN different countries this direction manifests itself with some peculiarities. Italy, France, England, Germany, USA expressed the classics as:

• Palladianism or early classicism,
• Georgian architecture,
• Empire,
• Regency,
• Biedermeier,
• federal architecture.

Residence of the British Prime Minister. Georgian house at 10 Downing Street, London

Historicist styles in architecture

This direction gravitates toward the conscious recreation of the forms and content of the historical styles of architecture of the past. It can simultaneously combine several old trends and introduce new elements. This is, in a way, a smooth dissociation from classicism, time.

Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk, Ostend, Neo-Gothic, 1899–1908 Belgium

It is attributed

• subjective interpretations of Neo-Gothic and Neo-Renaissance with elements new to them,
• combinations with neo-Moorish or Byzantine styles,
• variations on the theme of baroque - neo-baroque
• and the theme of the Greek style - Neo-Greek.

Historicism in Russia took shape in the "pseudo-Russian style".

A harmonious combination of forms of past styles is typical for pure. It is inherent in late historicism to focus on the baroque period in the revival - neo-baroque.

Modern architecture, using this style in our time, has created another look, which is called Neo-historicism.

Architectural styles of Art Nouveau

Although British art historians unambiguously define it as the Victorian style, its birth heralded the beginning of the Art Nouveau era. And that was in 1861.

Art Nouveau (Art Nouveau)

This architectural style developed from the end of the 19th century to the mid-20s of the 20th century. The founder of Art Nouveau is the Englishman William Morris (1830-1896), the famous leader of Arts and Craft, and Pre-Raphaelite artists.

Despite the different names, "liberty", "art nouveau", "tiffany", "metro" and others, it is easily recognizable, because. draws its inspiration from nature. Its main characteristic is ornaments filled with stylized motifs of plants and flowers, birds, insects, fish.

Art Deco (Art Deco)

It's dynamic and bold continuation of Art Nouveau. He does not reject neoclassicism, but welcomes modern technologies and aerodynamic elements. Transforms the smooth lines of Art Nouveau into geometry, angular ornaments and ethnographic patterns. Prefers expensive materials, such as rare woods, ivory, aluminum and silver.

Luxury is limited by strict regularity and the absence of bright colors in the design. The main focus is the beauty of the material. Art Deco gained international recognition in the 1930s and 1940s.

Art Deco. Chrysler building, New York, USA

Modern Rational

In 1930-1937. Art Deco gently flows into Rational Modern. This style emphasizes curved, horizontally elongated forms and elements of ship architecture. Industrial designers stripped Art Deco of ornamentation in favor of clean lines, sharp corners were replaced by aerodynamic curves, and exotic woods and stone were replaced by cement and glass.

Pharmacy Building, Kansas City, Missouri, USA, Art Nouveau.

Architectural styles of modernism

The global movement in architecture and design of the 20th century, which united the emerging architectural styles based on innovations in building technology, new materials, reinforced concrete, steel and glass, was called international style.

Character traits:

• decisive renewal of forms and designs,
• analytical approach to the function of buildings,
• strictly rational use of materials,
• openness to structural innovations.

He rejects ornamentation, the neoclassical approach to architecture, and the Beaux-Arts (beaux-art), which means "beautiful architecture", and prefers minimalism. Essential elements:

• asymmetrical compositions,
• cubic or cylindrical shapes,
• flat roofs,
• use of steel and reinforced concrete,
• big windows.

In different countries, their features acquired their own sound. But everyone has the same principles:

• desire to save
• wide use of new materials,
• create free plans of simple geometric shapes using the framework modular structure.

The buildings do not have national cultural signs, there is no decor, but there are surfaces made of glass and metal.

International style covers modern trends in architecture such as:

• brutalism,
• constructivism,
• functionalism,
• Rationalism,
• De Stijl (neoplasty),
• Bauhaus and others.

Modernism. Palace of Gustavu Capanema, Rio, Brazil

The architectural styles of this direction are discussed in more detail in the article.

Architectural styles of postmodernism

An association architectural trends that emerged in the 60s of the last century as a reaction to austerity, formalism and lack of diversity, is postmodernism. Its heyday came in the 1980s.

The recurrence of various principles contained mainly in the classical architecture of the past and their application to modern structures has given rise to the architecture of historical allusion (a stylistic device that alludes to something well-known).

The search for uniqueness, the creation of new forms, the idea of ​​harmonizing architecture in accordance with the environment are distinctive features in the work of postmodernists. They are characterized by bright colors, classical motifs, a variety of structures, materials and shapes.

The desire to maintain proportions and symmetry, to express the imagery of buildings, the introduction or revival of decor (bas-reliefs, murals) are actively used in exterior decoration.

Since the late 1990s, it has been splitting into new trends of high-tech architecture, neoclassicism and deconstructivism.

Hi-tech in architecture

High Tec - high technology. It arose in the 1970s on the basis of high-tech elements in industry and engineering.
The concept of High Tech developed from British modernist architecture in the late 1960s. Prefers lightweight materials and clean, smooth, impenetrable surfaces, often glass. Characterized by pronounced open steel structures, exposed pipes, ducts, etc., flexibility to create indoor areas and interiors.

These changes were introduced and implemented by the style's key architects Norman Foster and Richard Rogers from the 1970s.

Hi-tech building: Channel 4 headquarters, Horseferry Road, London, 1994

Deconstructivism

These strange, distorted, almost impossible buildings are actually part of a very specific, non-straightforward approach to design.
Deconstructivism is characterized

• using fragmentation,
• manipulation of surface structure ideas,
• redefining its forms and
• a radical manifestation of their complexity in the building.

By focusing on freedom of form rather than functional issues, deconstructivists aim to impress the visitor by making their stay in their space memorable: the interior is just as captivating as the exterior.

This fragmented style is believed to have developed out of postmodernism that began in the late 1980s. While postmodernism was returning to historical roots that modernism had shunned, deconstructivism rejected postmodern acceptance of such references and took a bold step towards extraordinary innovation in architecture.

Deconstructivism. Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain

Green, organic architecture

Green building seeks to minimize the negative impact of construction on nature. This current strives for a moderate and efficient use of materials, energy and space in order to organically develop the ecological system as a whole.
A key factor in green architecture: the use of environmentally friendly technologies and resources at every stage of construction, from idea and planning to destruction. The Sagrada Familia is a prime example of this.

Now you know the architectural styles in chronological order. What is missing from this list?

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Style in art is a multifaceted concept. You can talk about the style of a particular work or genre, about the individual style of an individual author, as well as the style of entire eras: Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Classicism.

Artistic style concept universal. It extends to all types of art of this era, manifests itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts, music and theatrical art.

The word "style" comes from the Greek word stylos, which was the name of a stick for writing on wax. Every era writes its own history. Possessing its figurative system, therefore, we can say that style is the handwriting of time in a given place at a given hour. Styles, like people, have several ages: infancy, maturity and old age, but for each style these periods have different durations. Thus, style is a living, changing concept.

Each style is generated by a certain era and with it develops and dies or passes into another style.

The architectural style is a combination of the main features and characteristics of the architecture of a given time, a given people. Architecture is characterized by stylistic unity.

Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Classicism, Art Nouveau, Constructivism - each of these styles is expressed in all three aspects: functional, constructive and artistic.

To give an idea of ​​a particular architectural style, it is necessary to characterize it from all three sides included in the Vitruvian formula.

Thus, functionality is expressed in the fact that new types of structures appear when they are needed. This may be due to the political structure of the country, its social structure, the level of technological progress, living conditions, religion, and traditions. IN Ancient Rome built grandiose public baths. In the Middle Ages they were no longer erected. On the other hand, the construction of castles and monasteries acquired an unprecedented scale.

The second side of architecture - constructive - is also inextricably linked with style. For example, the use of "Roman concrete" opened up the possibility of building large-span structures and vaulted ceilings for ancient Roman architects. This is how aqueducts, huge circuses (Coliseums), theaters, baths, basilicas, numerous triumphal arches appeared.

The aesthetic side of architecture in everyday life is defined by the word "beautiful".

The development and change of architectural styles are inextricably linked with history. Change of eras always entailed a change of style.

Thus, the formation of style is very complex and Long procces. The style in terms of duration of existence most often coincides with the historical era or with the history of a civilization or people. In the history of mankind there was no architectural style whose monuments could not be seen or even touched today.

Three sides of architecture

architecture is special kind human activity, the purpose of which is to create a habitat. Therefore, architecture is called the “second nature”, which a person creates around himself. Even in ancient times, the formula of architecture was found - the so-called Vitruvius formula:

Architecture = utility + strength + beauty.

Vitruvius identified three aspects of architecture: functional, technical and aesthetic, linking them into a single whole.

The functional side of the architecture speaks of the "necessity" of the building. A building is created only when it is necessary for a person. Architecture is the construction (of a residential building, places of worship and public buildings, entire cities). Therefore, for the whole purpose, the following types of architecture are distinguished:

• housing (houses, chambers, huts);
• religious (churches, cathedrals, churches);
• public (museums, railway stations, stadiums, schools, shops, theaters);
• industrial (plants, factories, dams, power plants, combines);
• landscape gardening (gazebos, pavilions, fountains, garden, park planning);
• memorial (triumphal arches, obelisks, panorama buildings, crypts);
• urban planning (architectural ensembles, city planning, car roads, bridges, tunnels).

The technical side of architecture is responsible for the structure - the "skeleton" of the building, its strength, durability, stability.

Over the centuries-old history of architecture, two constructive systems have been created: post-beam and arch-vaulted.

In the rack-beam system, the racks (supports) carry the entire weight of the structure, the horizontal beams block the space between them. Due to the limited length of a stone or wooden beam, the rooms in ancient Greek buildings were small in size.

In the arched-vaulted structure, the racks also bear the weight. But the space between the uprights is covered by arches, which allows you to push the uprights over long distances. Buildings are getting bigger. The vaults put pressure on the supports so that they can overturn, break, because in addition to the vertical they generate horizontal pressure. This thrust limits the size of buildings. To prevent overturning of pillars in the Middle Ages, during the construction of huge Gothic temples, the walls were supported by external pillars and arches.

The aesthetic (artistic) side makes architecture one of the art forms. They call it frozen music. Vitruvius believed. That the building should be not only necessary and durable, but also necessarily beautiful, “pleasant, elegant, impeccable” and “pretty”. The appearance of the building and the interior design of the premises reflect the artistic tastes of the architect and society. To create an artistic image, architecture uses three means: a three-dimensional composition, the main and secondary elements of the structure.

Any building has a volume and occupies a certain place in space. Considering it from this point of view, we are talking about a three-dimensional composition, for example: the arch of the General Staff Building with its two wings was the compositional completion of Palace Square; The Peter and Paul Cathedral, thanks to the precise calculation of the architect Trezzini, became the dominant feature of St. Petersburg.

The main elements of the structure include its main volumes, their grouping, proportions. Approaching the building, we see other elements of the structure that distinguish it from others. So, we will never confuse the facades of the Winter Palace and the House of the Book, even if these buildings are not shown to us in their entirety, but only their fragments. Secondary elements help us to recognize buildings: columns, pilasters, cornices, architraves, balconies, sculpture and other decorative details. They complement and complete the main compositional volumes. The means of creating an artistic image in architecture are not only the main, but also minor details in themselves, but also their ratio.

Style classification

Each era has its own ideas about the world around it, its own vision of beauty and harmony. The historically established set of creative principles, the nature and characteristics of the expression of the most significant features of the material and spiritual culture created by society is defined as the style of a given era.

The word "style" (Latin stilus) comes from the name ancient instrument for writing: style, or stylo, - a pointed rod made of bone, metal, wood, with which they wrote (scratched) the text on a wax tablet or on birch bark. Style is determined by a change in lifestyle, the development of society; it is generated by a certain era and dies off, being replaced by a new set of stable forms. Style rarely exists in its pure form: it always coexists with the old and the new.

For over a century now, the following generally accepted classification of styles has existed:

• Egyptian style - 5000-1000 AD BC.
• antiquity - 3000 BC - 400 AD;
• Romanesque style - 10-12 centuries;
• Gothic - 12th-16th centuries;
• Renaissance (Renaissance) - 15th-16th centuries;
• baroque, rococo - 17-18 centuries;
• classicism - 18-19 centuries;
• modern - late 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century;
• rationalism - 20th c.

Each style has its own characteristics. Consider several architectural styles: Gothic, Romanesque, Renaissance (Renaissance), Baroque, Rococo.

Roman style

In the 11th-13th centuries, a new architectural style developed in Europe. Some of its features were borrowed from the Romans, so the style was called Romanesque. The main type of Romanesque building is the basilica. The buildings were elongated, their interior space divided by rows of columns into several naves. During the Romanesque period, arches were often used. They were used both inside buildings to cover the naves, and outside to create decorative arcature elements. IN different corners In Europe, buildings of this style differed from each other in national color. Even artistic directions: Saxon and Rhine schools in Germany Burgundian, Aquitaine, Provencal - in France. In Burgundy - the central region of France - the influence of the Roman church was especially strong. In France and Italy, arches were also used in the design of facades. They were distinguished by the richness of decorative decoration; oriental motifs are clearly traced in them. In some basilicas, arcade elements rush up, as if turning into Gothic style. Such is the Trinity Church in Cannes, built in 1070.

Characteristic features of the Romanesque style:

• colors: brown, red, green, white;
• lines: straight, horizontal and vertical, semicircular.
• shapes: rectangular, cylindrical;
• structures: stone, massive, thick-walled; wooden plastered with a visible skeleton;
• windows: rectangular, small, in stone houses - arched.
• doors: plank, rectangular with massive hinges, a lock and a deadbolt;
• interior elements: semicircular frieze, repeating geometric or floral ornament; halls with exposed ceiling beams and pillars in the center.

Gothic style

The Gothic style is richer and more complex than the Romanesque, and the system of Gothic plots is much broader, more harmonious and more logical: it reflected all medieval ideas about the world. “This makes a person especially acutely feel the height of the columns and walls in comparison with their size,” wrote A.G. Tsires. playing such important role in the religious worldview of medieval Europe.

Characteristic features of the Gothic style

• colors: yellow, red, blue;
• lines: lancet forming a vault of two intersecting arcs;
• shape: rectangular building; lancet arches turning into pillars;
• constructions: frame, openwork, stone; elongated lancet arches; underlined skeleton structures;
• windows: elongated, often with multi-colored stained-glass windows; round decorative buildings on top of the building;
• doors: lancet ribbed arches of doorways; oak paneled doors;
• interior elements: a fan vault with supports or a coffered ceiling and wooden panels on the walls; complex leafy ornament; halls are high, narrow and long or wide with supports in the center.

Gothic style is most common in Spain, Germany, England, France.

Gothic in Spain

Spanish Gothic began to take shape around XIII century. Its development proceeded unevenly due to the fragmentation of the kingdom and the influence in various historical areas of local traditions or the impact of the art of the Arabs. The style manifested itself exclusively in temple architecture. In Spain, the spread of new architectural ideas was slow. The Cistercians introduced a number of Gothic techniques: this manifested itself in the form of arches and ribs of the vault, and in the very use of lancet arches. Moorish techniques also left their mark on the interpretation of the Gothic system of the rib frame: the vault above the crossroads rests on cross-shaped arches, in the space between them an eight-pointed openwork star is placed. The influence of Arab art was most clearly manifested in the brick cathedrals built by Muslim craftsmen. The first Spanish churches to repeat the scale of French Gothic cathedrals were the cathedrals in Burgos and Toledo (begun in 1226). Spanish Gothic is characterized by free fantasy deviations from a single constructive design of the building and numerous additions to the original plan in the form of many chapels and outbuildings. The most important feature of the Spanish Gothic monuments is the continuation of the choir from east to west, from the apse to the middle of the central nave. The choir was separated by a high decorated partition, behind which was placed the main chapel, also enclosed by a wall. In the chapel, the altar was fenced off from the space behind the altar by a high, richly decorated retablo. All this turned the chapel into an independent church inside the cathedral.

Gothic in Germany

In the XII - XIV centuries. Germany was going through a period of feudal fragmentation. The centers of Gothic art here were town halls and city cathedrals. Gothic became widespread in Germany in the first half of the 13th century. German Gothic cathedrals differed from French ones. In an effort to convey as clearly as possible the desire of the human soul to heaven, the architects increased the height of the vaults, crowning them with turrets with spiers. The western facades of cathedrals with one or two high slender towers were especially decoratively decorated. However, outdoor semi-arches (flying buttresses) and rose windows were rarely used here.

Monuments of Gothic architecture in Germany are the cathedrals in Marburg, Naumburg, Freiburg, Ulm and other cities. The most famous Gothic cathedral in Germany - Cologne The construction of the cathedral began in 1248 and ended in the XIV century. The towers of the cathedral were built in the 19th century. The 46 m high building is decorated with many arches, spiers, openwork carvings, lancet arches. The magnificent sculpture of the cathedral moved from the outer walls into the inner space of the temple. It is rhythmically connected with architecture, but not with its rocky mass, but with the curves of vaults and arches. The statues themselves also have characteristic curves in the form of the letter S. The sculpture of the Cologne Cathedral is original, unique, extremely emotional, dramatic.

Gothic in England

Gothic architecture in England began to develop in the XII century. and was mainly associated with monasteries. Famous cathedrals of England: Canterbury Cathedral - the residence of the head of the English Church; cathedrals in Lincoln, Wales, Salisbury.

A characteristic feature of English Gothic cathedrals is the presence of two transepts (transverse naves), one of which is shorter than the other. English cathedrals are of considerable length: they were built on open space and had the opportunity to rush not only up, but also to the sides. English Gothic is characterized by stretched facades, various narthexes, far-reaching transepts, rectangular apses, huge (up to 135 m high) towers above the baptismal, a relatively small height of the central nave (in relation to the side ones). Erecting cathedrals more and more elongated in length, English architects supplied them with lancet arches, repeated many times in the windows, and with the same abundance of vertical wall sashes. Decorative elements played a leading role in English Gothic, for example, the use of color contrasts between different types of stone. The famous cathedral at Salisbury, in southern England, was built in the 12th century. Hundreds of medieval masons and carpenters worked wonders to create this beautiful building. The cathedral stands on the foundation of only one meter, because under it lies a powerful natural foundation - a layer of silicon gravel. It took another 33 years to complete the main building, and the cathedral was completed in 1258. A settlement grew up around the cathedral, called New Sarum and today known to us as the city of Salisbury. Between 1285 and 1315 a tower and spire were added to the cathedral. 6500 tons of stone were used for the construction. From such a huge load, four pillars supporting the tower and spire caved in, and to redistribute the weight, buttresses and flying buttresses were used.

Gothic in France

Gothic art originated in the French province of Ile de France, the center of royal possessions. One of the masterpieces of French Gothic is Notre Dame Cathedral, the famous Parisian Notre Dame. The cathedral was built on the site of a Christian basilica. Its construction began in 1163 during the activity of Bishop Maurice de Sully, and ended in 1345 in the 14th century. Notre Dame is a grandiose three-aisled basilica that can accommodate about 9,000 people at the same time. The length of the basilica is 129, it has 5 longitudinal naves. 3 portal entrances lead to the temple, framed by arches extending into the depths; above them are niches with statues - the so-called "royal gallery", images of biblical kings and French kings, a total of 28 figures. The center of the western facade is decorated with a rose window, about 10 m in diameter, and windows under lancet arches stretched upwards above the side portals. No less famous cathedral in France is the Cathedral in Chartres. It is famous for its stained-glass windows, which occupied an area of ​​more than 2.5 thousand square meters. km. In 1194, the cathedral almost completely burned down, only the "royal portal" and the foundations of the towers were preserved. The building was later rebuilt. An example of "mature Gothic" was the famous French cathedral in Reims.

Gothic in Russia

In the Middle Ages, Gothic was practically unknown in Russia. True, a certain similarity with European Gothic can be seen in the architecture of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin. Gothic architecture penetrated into Russia only in the Neo-Gothic era, that is, at the end of the 18th century.

According to Starov's project, a wonderful landscape park was created in Taitsy with various architectural structures, of which the Gothic gates, consisting of two symmetrical gatehouse pavilions connected by a lancet arch, have survived to this day.

In Pushkin, in the Alexander Park, there is a very beautiful building of the Gothic style - the Chapelle Tower. The pavilion consists of two square towers with a wide arch between them. The tower was built according to the project of the architect A. Menelas in 1825 - 1828. Previously, in the windows of Chapelle there were stained-glass windows depicting biblical scenes, and the daylight penetrating through the colored glass illuminated the interior with a ghostly shimmer, the figures of angels at the base of the vaults and the white marble statue of Christ. But, unfortunately, these sculptures have not survived to our time. The Chapelle building is monumental and has the appearance of genuine Gothic ruins.

Renaissance

The Renaissance is a return in architecture to the principles and forms of ancient, predominantly Roman art. Of particular importance in this direction is given to symmetry, proportion, geometry and the order of the components, as clearly evidenced by the surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportion of medieval buildings is replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels, asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, niches, and aedicules. An example of this style is Chambord Castle in France. 1519-1547

Characteristic features of the Renaissance style

• colors: purple, blue, yellow, brown:
• lines: semicircular;
• geometric patterns - circle, square, cross, octagon;
• shape: round or sloping roof with tower superstructures;
• arched galleries, colonnades; round, ribbed domes; high and spacious halls, bay windows;
• structures: massive and visually stable;
• windows: rectangular with a heavy cornice and frieze, round, semicircular arched, often paired and even triple;
• doors: the device of portals with a heavy cornice, frieze and columns; rectangular and semicircular arched entrance;
• interior elements: coffered ceiling; ancient sculptures; leaf ornament; wall and ceiling painting.

Baroque

Baroque (barecco) in translation from Italian - "strange", "artsy", "bizarre", and translated from Portuguese - "pearl of irregular shape". This is a dynamic, affective style, which is dual theatrical, enchanting, striving for luxury. In the picture you can see the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, in the style of Peter the Great Baroque. Baroque assimilates and reworks various artistic traditions, including them in the development of national styles. Baroque art is characterized by grandiosity, pomp, pathetic elation, showiness, a combination of the illusory and the real, a strong contrast of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow.

Rococo

Rococo is characterized by the most complex carved and stucco decorations, curls, masks-heads of cupids, etc.; in the decoration of the premises big role play reliefs and picturesque panels in fanciful frames, as well as numerous mirrors, enhancing the effect of light movement, as if penetrating the surface of the walls. The figure shows the Smolny Cathedral, built in St. Petersburg. The predominantly ornamental orientation of the Rococo style did not allow it to have a significant impact on the facades of buildings.

Characteristic features of baroque, rococo styles

• colors: muted pastel shades; red, pink, white, blue;
• lines: bizarre convex-concave asymmetric pattern;
• in the forms of a semicircle, rectangle, oval; vertical orientation of the columns; pronounced horizontal division;
• shape: vaulted, domed and rectangular: towers, balconies, bay windows;
• designs: contrasting, tense, dynamic; with an artsy facade - and at the same time massive, stable:
• windows: semi-circular and rectangular: with floral decor around the perimeter;
• doors: arched openings with columns; vegetable decor;
• interior elements: the desire for grandeur and splendor; massive front stairs; columns, pilasters, sculptures, carved ornament, interconnection of design elements.

Eclecticism

Eclecticism is an architectural direction based on the unification in one building. various forms old styles in different combinations. In Russia, it developed in the 1830s-1910s, changing a number of stages. New types of buildings appeared (banks, railway stations, folk houses etc.), rational space-planning and engineering solutions. Eclecticism includes "brick style", "Russian style" and other artistic trends in architecture with elements borrowed from old styles. Eclecticism usually takes place during periods of decline in art. Elements of eclecticism are noticeable, for example, in late ancient Roman art, which combined forms borrowed from the art of Greece, Egypt, Western Asia, etc. Representatives of the Bologna school gravitated towards eclecticism, who believed that they could achieve perfection by combining the best, in their opinion, side of the creativity of the great masters of the Renaissance.

In the history of art, the most prominent place is occupied by the eclectic architecture of the mid-second half of the 19th century, which used forms of various historical styles (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, etc.) extremely widely and often uncritically; it is characteristic, however, that this architectural and design eclecticism, with its "freedom of choice" of architectural and ornamental motifs, had a significant influence on the formation of a holistic in its essence, but nourished from the very various sources style "modern".

In the field visual arts eclecticism is most typical of salon art. Eclectic tendencies have become widespread in Western European and American culture since the mid-20th century. in connection with the formation of postmodernism and the fashion for "retrospectivism" of decoration, copying certain stylistic trends of the past (including eclecticism of the 19th century).

neogothic

Originated in England in the 40s of the 18th century. Unlike the national trends of eclecticism, Neo-Gothic was in demand all over the world: it was in this style that Catholic cathedrals were built in New York and Melbourne, Sao Paulo and Calcutta, Manila and Guangzhou, Rybinsk and Kiev.

The most famous neo-Gothic building is the Palace of Westminster on the Thames.

The appearance of neo-Gothic in Russia is associated with the name of the architect Yuri Matveyevich (Georg Friedrich) Felten. Not far from St. Petersburg, according to his project, the neo-Gothic Chesme Palace (1774-1777) and the Chesme Church (1777-1780) were built.

Features of the Neo-Gothic style are also present in the royal residence at Tsaritsyn in Moscow. It was built by the architect Bazhenov. Samples of medieval Gothic in Russia can be seen in the Kaliningrad region (former East Prussia). A small number of buildings have survived in the Leningrad region. Most of all they can be found in Vyborg (the bank building on the market square, the market building, the church of Hyacinth (XVI century) in the old town, but most importantly - the only medieval castle in Russia (except for the Kaliningrad region), founded by the Swedes in 1293 .

Thus, from the above, we can conclude that over time the architecture has changed, leaving and improving the best that was in style decisions. The interweaving of mathematics and art creates the architectural music of European cities, and this fascinates our eyes to this day. The windows of these buildings look at us from the depths, striking and surprising with exquisite forms and strict mathematical calculations. The wind above the rooftops sounds like organ strings, turning architectural masterpieces into frozen music.

I live in an area of ​​new buildings, where the houses are monotonous and faceless, but we care about where to live, and the return to the architectural masterpieces of past centuries gives us hope that new architects will come who will create no less beautiful buildings, people will live in beautiful houses . After all, what we see around us affects our soul. We will live better if we are surrounded by the music of architecture.

What are the types and styles of architecture

Architecture or architecture (lat. architectura from ancient Greek αρχι - senior, chief, and other Greek τέκτων - builder, carpenter) - the art of designing, building buildings and structures (also their complexes). Architecture certainly creates a materially organized environment that people need for their life and activities, in accordance with modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society.

Architectural works are often perceived as cultural or political symbols, as works of art. Historical civilizations are characterized by their architectural achievements. Architecture allows the vital functions of society to be carried out, while at the same time directing life processes. However, architecture is created in accordance with the capabilities and needs of people.

As an art form, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically forms the environment of a person, expresses social ideas in artistic images.

The historical development of society determines the functions and types of structures (buildings with an organized interior space, structures that form open spaces, ensembles), technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures.

According to the method of formation of images, architecture is classified as a non-pictorial (tectonic) art form, which uses signs that do not allow recognition in the images of any real objects, phenomena, actions and are addressed directly to the associative mechanisms of perception.

According to the method of unfolding images, architecture is classified as a spatial (plastic) art form, the works of which:

Exist in space, not changing and not developing in time;

They are subjective;

Performed by processing material material;

Perceived by the audience directly and visually.

Space-planning design (architecture in narrow sense, architecture) - the main section of architecture associated with the design and construction of buildings and structures.

Empire (from French empire - empire) - a style in architecture and art (mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Focusing, like classicism, on samples of ancient art, the Empire included in their circle artistic heritage archaic Greece and imperial Rome, drawing from it motives for the embodiment of majestic power and military strength: monumental forms of massive porticos (mainly Doric and Tuscan orders), military emblems in architectural details and decor (lictor bundles, military armor, laurel wreaths, eagles, etc. . P.). The Empire also included individual ancient Egyptian architectural and plastic motifs (large undivided planes of walls and pylons, massive geometric volumes, Egyptian ornament, stylized sphinxes, etc.).

IN Russian Empire this style appeared under Alexander I. The invitation of foreign architects in Russia was a frequent occurrence, since it was fashionable among titled persons, and in early XIX century in Russia there was a passion for French culture. For erection St. Isaac's Cathedral Alexander I invited the novice French architect Henri Louis Auguste Ricard de Montferrand, who later became one of the founders of the "Russian Empire".

The Russian Empire was divided into Moscow and St. Petersburg, and such a division was determined not so much by a territorial feature as by the degree of separation from classicism - the Moscow one was closer to it. Most famous representative St. Petersburg direction of the Empire was the architect Carl Rossi, among other representatives of this style it is customary to name the architects Andrey Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin, Osip Bove, Domenico Gilardi, Vasily Stasov, sculptors Ivan Martos, Theodosius Shchedrin. In Russia, the Empire style dominated architecture until 1830-1840.

The revival of the Empire in reborn forms took place in Russia in Soviet time, during the period from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s. This direction of the Empire is also known as the "Stalin Empire".

Arch Carruzel

Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architecture - a period of development of architecture in European countries from the beginning of the 15th to the beginning of the 17th century, in the general course of the Renaissance and the development of the foundations of the spiritual and material culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. This period is a turning point in the History of Architecture, especially in relation to the preceding architectural style, the Gothic. Gothic, unlike Renaissance architecture, looked for inspiration in its own interpretation of Classical art.

Particular importance in this direction is attached to the forms of ancient architecture: symmetry, proportion, geometry and the order of the components, as clearly evidenced by the surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportion of medieval buildings is replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels, asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, niches, and aedicules. The architecture becomes order again.

The development of Renaissance architecture led to innovations in the use of building techniques and materials, to the development of architectural vocabulary. It is important to note that the revival movement is characterized by a move away from the anonymity of artisans and the emergence of a personal style in architects. Few masters are known to have built works in the Romanesque style, as well as architects who built magnificent Gothic cathedrals. Whereas Renaissance works, even small buildings or just projects, have been neatly documented since their inception.

The first representative of this direction can be called Filippo Brunelleschi, who worked in Florence, a city, along with Venice, considered a monument of the Renaissance. Then it spread to other Italian cities, to France, Germany, England, Russia and other countries.

Characteristics of Renaissance architecture[edit | edit source]

Sant'Agostino, Rome, Giacomo Pietrasanta, 1483

Renaissance architects borrowed the characteristic features of Roman classical architecture. However, the form of buildings and their purpose, as well as the basic principles of urban planning, have changed since ancient times. The Romans never built buildings like the churches of the early period of the development of the revived classical style or the mansions of the successful merchants of the 15th century. In turn, at the time described, there was no need to build huge structures for sports or public baths, which were built by the Romans. Classical norms have been studied and recreated to serve modern purposes.

The plan of Renaissance buildings is defined by rectangular shapes, symmetry and proportion based on the module. In temples, the module is often the span of the nave. The problem of the integral unity of the structure and the facade was first recognized by Brunelleschi, although he did not solve the problem in any of his works. For the first time this principle is manifested in the Alberti building - the Basilica di Sant'Andrea in Mantua. The improvement of the project of a secular building in the Renaissance style began in the 16th century and reached its highest point in the work of Palladio.

The facade is symmetrical about the vertical axis. Church facades, as a rule, are measured with pilasters, arches and entablature, topped with a pediment. The arrangement of columns and windows conveys the desire for the center. The first facade in the Renaissance style can be called the facade of the Cathedral of Pienza (1459-1462), attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino), it is possible that Alberti was involved in the creation of the temple.

Residential buildings often have a cornice, on each floor the arrangement of windows and related details is repeated, the main door is marked with a certain feature - a balcony or surrounded by rust. One of the prototypes of such an organization of the facade was the Rucellai Palace in Florence (1446-1451) with three rows of pilasters.

St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “excessive”, port. perola barroca - “pearl of irregular shape” (literally “pearl with vice”); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - characteristic European culture XVII-XVIII centuries, the center of which was Italy. The baroque style appeared in XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". Baroque opposed classicism and rationalism.

In the 17th century Italy - the first link in the art of the Renaissance, lost its economic and political power. Foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to manage in Italy, they dictate the terms of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural positions - it remains cultural center Europe. The center of the Catholic world is Rome, it is rich in spiritual powers.

Power in culture manifested itself in adapting to new conditions - the nobility and the church need everyone to see their strength and viability, but since there was no money for the construction of the palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate is becoming popular, and this is how baroque appeared in Italy in the 16th century.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of a shock, which for the 16th century was the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and permanent unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a most rational being, has changed. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

IN Italian architecture The most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - Sicilian Baroque. Light acts as a fundamental important element baroque space, getting into the church through the naves.

The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. His most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Now they are classified as French Baroque Palace of Versailles together with the regular park, Luxembourg Palace, building French Academy in Paris and other works. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century, the French developed their own style, a kind of baroque - rococo. It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was distributed throughout Europe and in Russia.

In Belgium, the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels is an outstanding baroque monument. The Rubens House in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features.

Baroque appeared in Russia as early as the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, it was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called "Petrine baroque" (more restrained), and flourished in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

In Germany, the outstanding monument of the Baroque is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I. G. Büring (German) Russian, H. L. Manter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G. W. von Knobelsdorff).

The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Sarmatian baroque and Vilna baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative was Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension of the Lord (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Classicism

Classicism (fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary) - art style and aesthetic trend in European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. In many ways, classicism is based on antique art(Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open sky such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

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Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Gothic is a period in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 12th to the 15th-16th centuries. Gothic came to replace the Romanesque style, gradually replacing it. The term "Gothic" is most often applied to a well-known style of architectural structures that can be briefly described as "eerily majestic". But Gothic covers almost all works of fine art of this period: sculpture, painting, book miniature, stained glass, fresco and many others.

Gothic originated in middle of XII century in the north of France, in the XIII century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, England. Gothic penetrated into Italy later, with great difficulty and a strong transformation, which led to the emergence of "Italian Gothic". At the end of the 14th century, Europe was engulfed by the so-called international Gothic. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

For buildings and works of art containing characteristic Gothic elements, but created in the eclectic period (mid-19th century) and later, the term "neo-Gothic" is used.

The Gothic style mainly manifested itself in the architecture of temples, cathedrals, churches, monasteries. It developed on the basis of Romanesque, more precisely, Burgundian architecture. In contrast to the Romanesque style, with its round arches, massive walls and small windows, the Gothic style is characterized by arches with pointed tops, narrow and high towers and columns, a richly decorated facade with carved details (wimpergi, tympanums, archivolts) and multicolored stained-glass lancet windows. . All style elements emphasize the vertical.

The church of the monastery of Saint-Denis, designed by Abbot Suger, is considered the first Gothic architectural structure. During its construction, many supports and internal walls were removed, and the church acquired a more graceful appearance compared to the Romanesque "fortresses of God." In most cases, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris was taken as a model.

From Ile-de-France (France), the Gothic architectural style spread to Western, Central and Southern Europe - to Germany, England, etc. In Italy, it did not dominate for long and, as a "barbarian style", quickly gave way to the Renaissance; and since he came here from Germany, he is still called "stile tedesco" - German style.

In Gothic architecture, 3 stages of development are distinguished: early, mature (high gothic) and late (flaming gothic, variants of which were also the styles of manueline (in Portugal) and isabelino (in Castile).

With the advent of the Renaissance at the beginning of the 16th century, north and west of the Alps, the Gothic style has lost its meaning.

Almost all the architecture of Gothic cathedrals is due to one major invention of the time - a new frame structure, which makes these cathedrals easily recognizable.

Cathedral of Notre Dame

Rococo (French rococo, from French rocaille - crushed stone, decorative shell, shell, rocaille, less often rococo) - a style in art (mainly in interior design) that arose in France in the first half of the 18th century (during the regency of Philip Orleansky) as a development of the Baroque style. Characteristic features of Rococo are sophistication, great decorative loading of interiors and compositions, graceful ornamental rhythm, great attention to mythology, personal comfort. The style received its highest development in architecture in Bavaria.

The term "rococo" (or "rocaille") came into use in the middle of the 19th century. Initially, "rocaille" is a way of decorating the interiors of grottoes, fountain bowls, etc. with various fossils that imitate natural (natural) formations, and a "rocaille" is a master who creates such decorations. What we now call "rococo" was once called "picturesque taste", but in the 1750s. criticism of everything “twisted” and “tortured” became more active, and the naming of “spoiled taste” began to appear in the literature. The Encyclopedists were especially successful in criticism, according to whom there was no reasonable beginning in the “spoiled taste”.

Despite the popularity of the new "ancient forms" that came into vogue in the late 1750s. (this direction was called "Greek taste"; objects of this style are often mistaken for late Rococo), the so-called Rococo retained its position until the very end of the century.

The architectural (more precisely, decorative) Rococo style appeared in France during the Regency (1715-1723) and reached its apogee under Louis XV, moved to other European countries and dominated it until the 1780s.

Abandoning the cold splendor, heavy and boring pomposity of the art of the times of Louis XIV and the Italian Baroque, Rococo architecture strives to be light, friendly, playful at all costs; she does not care about the organic combination and distribution of the parts of the structure, nor about the expediency of their forms, but disposes of them with complete arbitrariness, reaching the caprice, avoids strict symmetry, endlessly varies dissection and ornamental details and does not skimp on squandering the latter. In the creations of this architecture, straight lines and flat surfaces almost disappear, or at least are masked by figured finishes; none of the established orders is carried out in its pure form; columns lengthen, then shorten and twist in a helical shape; their capitals are distorted by coquettish alterations and additions, the cornices are placed above the cornices; high pilasters and huge caryatids prop up insignificant ledges with a cornice protruding forward; the roofs are girdled along the edge with balustrades with bottle-shaped balusters and with pedestals placed at some distance from each other, on which vases or statues are placed; pediments, representing breaking convex and hollow lines, are also crowned with vases, pyramids, sculptural figures, trophies and other similar items. Everywhere, framed by windows, doors, wall spaces inside the building, in plafonds, intricate stucco ornamentation is used, consisting of curls that vaguely resemble the leaves of plants, convex shields, incorrectly surrounded by the same curls, masks, flower garlands and festoons, shells, rough stones (rocaille), etc. Despite such a lack of rationality in the use of architectonic elements, such capriciousness, sophistication and burden of forms, the Rococo style left many monuments that still tempt with their originality, luxury and cheerful beauty, vividly enduring us in the era of rouge and whitewash, flies and powdered wigs (hence the German style names: Perückenstil, Zopfstil).

Amalienburg near Munich

Roman style

Romanesque style (from lat. romanus - Roman) - an artistic style that dominated Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in XI-XII centuries(in a number of places - and in the XIII century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art. Most fully expressed in architecture.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to severe fortress architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and concise exterior decoration - the building has always blended harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked particularly solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque Cathedral:

The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space

Enlargement of the choir or the eastern altar of the temple

Increasing the height of the temple

Replacing the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat along the beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).

Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns

The main motive of the interior - semicircular arches

The rational simplicity of the design, composed of individual square cells - grass.

Winchester Cathedral, England

Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism is a direction in modern architecture based on the application of ideas in construction practice. French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Another source of inspiration for the deconstructivists is the early Soviet constructivism of the 1920s. Deconstructivist projects are characterized by visual complexity, unexpected broken and deliberately destructive forms, as well as an aggressive intrusion into the urban environment.

As an independent trend, deconstructivism was formed in the late 1980s. (works by Peter Eisenman and Daniel Libeskind). The theoretical background of the movement was Derrida's reasoning about the possibility of architecture that comes into conflict, "debunks" and abolishes itself. Further development they received in the periodicals of Rem Koolhaas. Deconstructivist manifestos include Zaha Hadid's Vitra Fire Station (1993) and Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997).

Dancing House, Czech Republic

Hi-tech (English hi-tech, from high technology - high technology) is a style in architecture and design that originated in the depths of late modernism in the 1970s and was widely used in the 1980s. The main theorists and practitioners of high-tech (for the most part, practice, unlike the architects of deconstructivism and postmodernism) are mostly English - Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Nicholas Grimshaw, at some stage of his work James Stirling and Italian Renzo Piano.

Early high-tech

The Pompidou Center in Paris (1977), built by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, is considered to be one of the first important high-tech structures to be implemented. At first, the project was met with hostility, but by the 1990s, the controversy subsided, and the Center became one of the recognized attractions of Paris (as the Eiffel Tower once was).

In England, real high-tech buildings appeared later. The first high-tech buildings in London were built only in the 1980s and 1990s (Lloyds building, 1986). Somewhat slow implementation modern projects in the spirit of high-tech in England was associated with the policy of Prince Charles, who then launched an active activity in the framework of the architectural competition for the reconstruction of Paternoster Square (1988). Taking part in the architectural debate, the prince spoke out in support of the new classicists and against high-tech architects, calling their buildings disfiguring the face of London. C. Jencks calls on "kings to leave architecture to architects", even the opinion is expressed that new wave monarchism with the dictatorship of the prince in architecture.

Modern high-tech

Hi-tech since the 1980s expressed prestige (all high-tech buildings are very expensive), C. Jenks calls them "banking cathedrals", one can even say that modern high-tech forms the image of the largest commercial firms. In London, the architectural debate around high-tech has subsided, and its brightest representatives are recognized and respected (Norman Foster was awarded the title of knight).

Since the 1990s bio-tech and eco-tech are developing - styles, as opposed to hi-tech, trying to connect with nature, not to argue with it, but to enter into a dialogue (this is especially noticeable in the works of the architects of the homeland of hi-tech - England and Italian R. Piano) .

Main features

The use of high technologies in the design, construction and engineering of buildings and structures.

Use of straight lines and shapes.

Wide application of glass, plastic, metal.

The use of functional elements: elevators, stairs, ventilation systems and others, placed outside the building.

Decentralized lighting that creates the effect of a spacious, well-lit room.

Wide use of silver metallic color.

High pragmatism in space planning.

Frequent appeal to elements of constructivism and cubism (as opposed to bio-tech).

As an exception, sacrificing functionality for the sake of design.

Fuji TV Headquarters (architect Kenzo Tange)

Types of architecture

Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of three-dimensional structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops and others), industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of landscape gardening space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with "small" architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

Urban planning.

Urban planning activities - activities in urban planning of the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban planning use of territories, the integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including the creative process of forming urban space, creating