The artistic method is the history of the emergence and development of the concept. artistic method

(Symbol - from the Greek. Symbolon - a conventional sign)

1. The central place is given to the symbol *
2. The striving for the highest ideal prevails
3. The poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon.
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
5. Elegance and musicality of the verse

The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 delivered a lecture “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into senior ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub debuted in the 1890s) and younger (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others debuted in the 1900s)

Acmeism

(From the Greek "acme" - a point, the highest point). The literary current of acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically associated with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) M. Kuzmin's article "On Fine Clarity", published in 1910, had an influence on the formation. In the program article of 1913 "The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism" N. Gumilyov called symbolism " worthy father", but emphasized at the same time that the new generation had developed a "courageously firm and clear outlook on life"

1. Orientation towards classical poetry of the 19th century
2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
3. Objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details
4. In rhythm, acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but the stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brought the poem closer to the living colloquial speech

Futurism

Futurism - from lat. futurum, the future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely associated with the avant-garde groupings of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups " Jack of Diamonds”,“ Donkey tail ”,“ Youth Union ”. In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article "Manifesto of Futurism." In 1912, the manifesto “Slapping the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

1. Rebelliousness, anarchic worldview
2. Rejection of cultural traditions
3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figured arrangement of stanzas and lines
4. Active word creation

Imagism

From lat. imago - image A literary trend in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is a metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the "Order of Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of new peasant poets

As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important constituent element his artistic means. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.

In the context, the word is a special world, a mirror of the author's perception and attitude to reality. It has its own, metaphorical, accuracy, its own special truths, called artistic revelations, the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.

The individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is, first of all, the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotional image of this or that artwork. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring that creates a kind of world that we discover for ourselves while reading the text.

Not only in literary, but also in oral, we use, without hesitation, various methods of artistic expression to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, figurativeness. Let's see what artistic techniques are in the Russian language.

The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.

Metaphor

Artistic devices in literature cannot be imagined without mentioning the most important of them - a way to create a linguistic picture of the world based on the meanings already existing in the language itself.

The types of metaphors can be distinguished as follows:

1. Fossilized, worn, dry or historical (bow of a boat, eye of a needle).
2. Phraseological units are stable figurative combinations of words that have emotionality, metaphor, reproducibility in the memory of many native speakers, expressiveness (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
3. A single metaphor (for example, a homeless heart).
4. Unfolded (heart - "porcelain bell in yellow China" - Nikolai Gumilyov).
5. Traditional poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
6. Individually-author's (hump of the sidewalk).

In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, paraphrase, meiosis, litote and other tropes.

The word "metaphor" itself means "transfer" in Greek. IN this case we are dealing with the transfer of the name from one subject to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some kind of similarity, they must be related in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression used in figurative meaning due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects on some basis.

As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the most striking means of expressiveness of artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the absence of expressiveness of the work.

Metaphor can be both simple and detailed. In the twentieth century, the use of expanded in poetry is revived, and the nature of simple changes significantly.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a type of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means "renaming", that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word by another on the basis of the existing adjacency of two concepts, objects, etc. This is an imposition on the direct meaning of a figurative one. For example: "I ate two plates." The confusion of meanings, their transfer is possible because the objects are adjacent, and the adjacency can be in time, space, etc.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means "correlation". Such a transfer of meaning takes place when a smaller one is called instead of a larger one, or vice versa; instead of a part - a whole, and vice versa. For example: "According to Moscow".

Epithet

Artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, cannot be imagined without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action with a subjective

Translated from Greek, this term means "attached, application", that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.

Epithet from simple definition distinguished by its artistic expressiveness.

Permanent epithets are used in folklore as a means of typification, and also as one of the essential funds artistic expression. IN strict meaning term, only those of them belong to tropes, the function of which is played by words in a figurative sense, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed by words in a direct sense (red berry, beautiful flowers). Figurative are created by using words in a figurative sense. Such epithets are called metaphorical. The metonymic transfer of the name can also underlie this trope.

An oxymoron is a kind of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, which form combinations with definable nouns that are opposite in meaning to words (hating love, joyful sadness).

Comparison

Comparison - a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of various objects by similarity, which can be both obvious and unexpected, distant. Usually it is expressed using certain words: "exactly", "as if", "like", "as if". Comparisons can also take the instrumental form.

personification

Describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a kind of metaphor, which is the assignment of the properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. Often it is created by referring to similar natural phenomena as conscious living beings. The personification is also the transfer of human properties to animals.

Hyperbole and litote

Let us note such methods of artistic expressiveness in literature as hyperbole and litotes.

Hyperbole (in translation - "exaggeration") is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggeration of what is being discussed.

Litota (in translation - "simplicity") - the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is at stake (a boy with a finger, a peasant with a fingernail).

Sarcasm, irony and humor

We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be supplemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.

• Sarcasm means "I tear meat" in Greek. This is an evil irony, a caustic mockery, a caustic remark. Using sarcasm creates comic effect, however, at the same time, an ideological and emotional assessment is clearly felt.
• Irony in translation means "pretense", "mockery". It occurs when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is implied.
• Humor is one of the lexical means of expression, in translation meaning "mood", "temper". In a comical, allegorical manner, whole works can sometimes be written in which one feels a mockingly good-natured attitude towards something. For example, the story "Chameleon" by A.P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I.A. Krylov.

Kinds artistic techniques the literature does not end there. We present to you the following.

Grotesque

The most important artistic devices in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "fancy". This artistic technique is a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the work of, for example, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("Lord Golovlevs", "History of a City", fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor, and the grotesque are popular artistic devices in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, "Gulliver's Travels").

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel "Lord Golovlevs"? Of course, grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic devices in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

Pun

A pun is a figure of speech that is an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that occurs when two or more meanings of a word are used in the context or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.

In puns, word play is based on homonymy and ambiguity. Anecdotes emerge from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A.P. Chekhov.

Figure of speech - what is it?

The word "figure" itself is translated from Latin as " appearance, outline, image. "The word is ambiguous. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expression related to figures: questions, appeals.

What is a "trope"?

"What is the name of the artistic technique that uses the word in a figurative sense?" - you ask. The term "trope" combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litote, hyperbole, personification and others. In translation, the word "trope" means "turn". Artistic speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special phrases that decorate speech and make it more expressive. IN different styles different means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of "expressiveness" for artistic speech is the ability of a text, a work of art to provide aesthetic, emotional impact per reader, create poetic paintings and vivid images.

We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them make us positive emotions, others, on the contrary, excite, alert, cause anxiety, soothe or induce sleep. Various sounds evoke various images. With the help of their combination, you can emotionally influence a person. Reading literary works of literature and Russian folk art, we are especially sensitive to their sound.

Basic techniques for creating sound expressiveness

• Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
• Assonance is the intentional harmonic repetition of vowels.

Often alliteration and assonance are used in works at the same time. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.

Reception of sound writing in fiction

Sound writing is an artistic technique, which is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, the selection of words that imitate sounds real world. This technique in fiction is used both in poetry and in prose.

Sound types:

1. Assonance means "consonance" in French. Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It contributes to the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm, rhyme of poems.
2. Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in artistic text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
3. Onomatopoeia - the transmission of special words, reminiscent of the sounds of the phenomena of the surrounding world, auditory impressions.

These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.

Artistic method (creative) method- this is a set of the most general principles of the aesthetic development of reality, which is consistently repeated in the work of a particular group of writers that form a direction, trend or school.

O.I. Fedotov notes that "the concept of "creative method" differs little from the concept that gave rise to it" artistic method”, although they tried to adapt it to express a larger meaning - as a way to study social being or as the basic principles (styles) of entire trends.

The concept of the artistic method appears in the 1920s, when critics of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) borrow this category from philosophy, thereby seeking to theoretically substantiate the development of their literary movement and depth. creative thinking"proletarian" writers.

The artistic method has an aesthetic nature, it represents historically determined general forms emotionally charged figurative thinking.

Art objects are the aesthetic qualities of reality, i.e. “the wide social significance of the phenomena of reality, drawn into social practice and bearing the stamp of essential forces” (Yu. Borev). The subject of art is understood as a historically changeable phenomenon, and changes will depend on the nature of social practice and the development of reality itself. The artistic method is analogous to the object of art. Thus, historical changes in the artistic method, as well as the emergence of a new artistic method, can be explained not only through historical changes in the subject of art, but also through historical change aesthetic qualities of reality. The object of art contains vital basis artistic method. The artistic method is the result of a creative reflection of an object of art, which is perceived through the prism of the general philosophical and political worldview of the artist. “The method always appears before us only in its concrete artistic embodiment- in the living matter of the image. This matter of the image arises as a result of the artist’s personal, most intimate interaction with the concrete world around him, which determines the entire artistic and thought process necessary to create a work of art” (L.I. Timofeev)

The creative method is nothing more than a projection of imagery into a certain concrete historical setting. Only in it does the figurative perception of life receive its concrete realization, i.e. is transformed into a certain, organically arisen system of characters, conflicts, storylines.

The artistic method is not an abstract principle of selection and generalization of the phenomena of reality, but a historically conditioned understanding of it in the light of the main questions that life poses to art at each new stage of its development.

The diversity of artistic methods in the same era is explained by the role of worldview, which acts as an essential factor in the formation of the artistic method. In each period of the development of art, there is a simultaneous emergence of various artistic methods depending on the social situation, since the era will be considered and perceived by artists in different ways. The proximity of aesthetic positions determines the unity of the method of a number of writers, which is associated with the commonality of aesthetic ideals, the kinship of characters, the homogeneity of conflicts and plots, and the manner of writing. So, for example, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok are associated with symbolism.

The artist's method is felt through style his works, i.e. through the individual manifestation of the method. Because the method is the way artistic thinking, then the method is the subjective side of the style, because this way of figurative thinking generates certain ideologically - artistic features art. The concept of method and individual style of the writer correlate with each other as the concept of genus and species.

Interaction method and style:

variety of styles within one creative method. This is confirmed by the fact that representatives of this or that method do not adjoin any one style;

stylistic unity is possible only within the same method, since even the external similarity of the works of authors adhering to the same method does not give grounds for attributing them to a single style;

the reverse effect of the style on the method.

The full use of the style techniques of artists who are adjacent to one method is incompatible with the consistent observance of the principles of the new method.

Along with the concept of creative method, the concept direction or type of creativity, which in the most diverse forms and proportions will be manifested in any method that arises in the process of the development of the history of literature, since they express general properties figurative reflection of life. In their totality, the methods form literary currents (or trends: romanticism, realism, symbolism, etc.).

The method determines only the direction creative work the artist, not her individual properties. The artistic method interacts with the creative individuality of the writer

The concept of "style" is not identical with the concept "creative individuality of the writer". The concept of "creative individuality" is broader than what is expressed narrow concept"style". In the style of writers, a number of properties are manifested, which in their totality characterize the creative individuality of writers. The concrete and real result of these properties in literature is style. The writer develops his own individual style on the basis of this or that artistic method. We can say that the creative individuality of the writer is necessary condition further development every artistic method. We can talk about a new artistic method when new individual phenomena created by the creative individualities of writers become general and represent a new quality in their totality.

16. Literary process- this is a set of generally significant changes in literary life (both in the work of writers and in the literary consciousness of society), i.e. dynamics of literature in a large historical time. Stages of the historical development of literature: 1) " archaic period”, where, of course, the folklore tradition is influential, 2) the middle of the 1st millennium BC. - mid-eighteenth V. - marked by the predominance of traditionalism of artistic consciousness and "poetics of style and genre"; 3) at the third stage, which began with the era of the Enlightenment and romanticism, “individual creative artistic consciousness” comes to the fore. In the process of historical evolution at certain stages of the development of the society of literature different peoples exhibit one or the other common features caused by the similarity social life, and at the same time they have national characteristics arising from the uniqueness of the culture of each people.

Literary direction- these are the works of writers of a particular country and era, who have reached awareness creative principles which are reflected in the creation of an aesthetic program that expresses the ideological and creative aspirations of these writers.

The first literary movement developed in France in late XVII - early XVIII centuries, when for the first time in history a group of writers rose to the realization of their creative principles. This direction was called "classicism". In the 19th century (especially in its first third) the development of literature proceeded under the sign of romanticism, which opposed classicist and enlightenment rationalism. In the 19th century a new literary and artistic community, denoted by the word realism, was consolidated. In the last third of the XX century. such an artistic phenomenon as postmodernism appeared in literature, in the culture of which, according to V. Kuritsyn, “the classical dependence of the signifier on the signified was broken”.

The stages of the literary process are habitually conceived as corresponding to those stages in the history of mankind that manifested themselves most distinctly and fully in the countries of Western Europe and especially brightly in the Romanesque. In this regard, ancient, medieval and - literature of the New Age with their own stages stand out (following the Renaissance - baroque, classicism, the Enlightenment with its sentimentalist branch, romanticism, and finally, realism, with which modernism coexists and successfully competes in the 20th century) .
Scientists have best understood the differences between the literatures of the New Age and the writing that preceded them. The situation is more complicated with the distinction between ancient and medieval literatures. It is not a problem for Western Europe(Ancient Greek and Roman antiquity are fundamentally different from medieval culture more "northern" countries), but raises doubts and disputes when referring to the literature of other regions, especially the eastern ones. Yes, and the so-called ancient Russian literature was essentially writing medieval type.
Scientists move away from the usual apologetic assessment of the Western European Renaissance, revealing its duality. On the one hand, the Renaissance enriched culture with the concept of complete freedom and independence of the individual, the idea of ​​​​unconditional trust in the creative abilities of man, on the other hand, the Renaissance “philosophy of luck fed<…>spirit of adventurism and immorality.
In the collective article of 1994 "Categories of Poetics in Shift literary epochs» identified and characterized three stages of world literature.
The first stage is the “archaic period”, where the folklore tradition is certainly influential. Here the mythopoetic artistic consciousness prevails and there is still no reflection on verbal art, and therefore there is no literary criticism, no theoretical studios, no artistic and creative programs. All this appears only at the second stage of the literary process, the beginning of which was laid by literary life Ancient Greece middle of the 1st millennium BC and continued until the middle of the eighteenth century. This very long period was marked by the predominance of the traditionalism of artistic consciousness and the "poetics of style and genre": writers were guided by pre-made forms of speech that met the requirements of rhetoric (see pp. 261–262 about it), and were dependent on genre canons. Within the framework of this second stage, in turn, two stages are distinguished, the boundary between which was the Renaissance (here, we note, we are talking mainly about European artistic culture). At the second of these stages, which replaced the Middle Ages, literary consciousness takes a step from an impersonal beginning to a personal one (although still within the framework of traditionalism); Literature is becoming more secular.
And, finally, at the third stage, which began with the Enlightenment and Romanticism, "individual creative artistic consciousness" comes to the fore. From now on, the "poetics of the author" dominates, freed from the omnipotence of the genre and style prescriptions of rhetoric. Here literature, as never before, "is extremely close to the immediate and concrete being of a person, imbued with his concerns, thoughts, feelings, created according to his measure"; the era of individual author's styles is coming; the literary process is closely connected "at the same time with the personality of the writer and the reality surrounding him." All this takes place in romanticism and in realism. 19th century, and to no small extent in the modernism of the recently ended century. It is to these phenomena of the literary process that we turn now.

Metod hoodOfeminine- a system of principles governing the process of creating works of literature and art. Category M. x. was introduced into aesthetic thought in the late 1920s, becoming one of the basic concepts of the Marxist theory of artistic creation. The variety of artistic methods (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism etc.) cannot be squeezed into the framework of opposing political views (reactionary - progressive), or opposite philosophical worldviews (materialism - idealism), or a simplified historical-artistic opposition (realism - anti-realism). It is necessary to consider the artistic method on the basis of its own aesthetic nature. the nature of the artistic method is disputed. Some scientists define it as a set of artistic techniques and means; others - as the principles of the aesthetic relationship of art to reality, others - as a system of worldview guidelines for creativity. It is a mistake to identify the creative method with the aesthetic relation of art to reality. Within the same method, different principles of this relationship are possible. Thus, for various theorists and practitioners of romanticism, art is either a reflection of the subjective world of the artist, or an expression of the principle of romantic irony, or an idealization of the past, or a prediction of the future, or an image of what is desired. And, despite such a different understanding of the principles of the aesthetic relationship of art to reality, all these artists used the same artistic method - romanticism. On the other hand, the principles of aesthetic attitude to reality sometimes coincide among representatives of different artistic methods. in the 20th century there are romanticism, modernism, critical realism, socialist realism. This diversity is explained by the fact that there are different layers and spheres of social practice, different worldviews among artists and their orientation to different traditions in previous art. The artistic method is the result of the active reflection of the art object. The worldview and the chosen artistic tradition act as a prism between reality and the artist's way of thinking. Worldview positions and artistic and cultural orientations on traditions are different for different schools and groups of artists. Hence, different methods arise in the same epoch.

- Method. The concept of artistic method.

Method is a set of the most general principles of artistic thinking. Isolate the realistic artistic method and the non-realistic method. Various models are being formed.

1. Selection of facts of reality for the image.

2. Evaluation.

3. Generalization - there are ideal models.

4. Artistic embodiment - a system of artistic techniques.

Method is a supra-epochal concept. Realism is always there, but it is different, different accents. Literary trends are the historical embodiment of any artistic method. Any direction has a theoretical support, a manifesto. The state of philosophy determines the views of writers. Realism grows out of Hegel. Enlightenment - French materialism. The literary direction is always heterogeneous. Example: critical realism. Fight within the direction.

Hood world of the author. A special section of S. is the S. of fiction (artistic speech). Its specificity is determined by the originality of the object itself. Since the language of literature, having become a phenomenon of art, does not cease to be a language in the ordinary sense of the word, but artistic features Because of the facts of language in literature are determined, in particular, by their stylistic properties, it is natural that the S. of artistic speech remains within the S. of language as a linguistic discipline, uses the same concepts and categories, but is not limited to them when identifying the aesthetic function of language in literature. WITH. fiction finds out ways of artistic application of language, combining aesthetic and communicative functions in it, and how language becomes a work of art in literature. Features of a literary text, ways of constructing different types author's narration and methods of reflecting in it the elements of speech of the described environment, ways of constructing a dialogue, functions of different stylistic layers of language in artistic speech, principles for selecting language means, their transformation in fiction, ways of updating such aspects of the language that are not essential in practical speech, and etc. One of the tasks of historical writing in this regard is to analyze the relationship between the language of fiction and the general literary and popular spoken language at different stages in the development of language and literature. This makes it possible to outline the links between the history of the literary language and the history of literature, to supplement such concepts as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism with proper linguistic characteristics. At the same time S. artistic speech seeks to reveal the aesthetic function of linguistic material in a particular artistic system, in its connections with other elements of this systems. Therefore, in the style of fiction, the language of the writer and individual works of art become the most important subject of study, that is, the problem of individual style is brought to the fore. S. artistic speech borders on poetics. This contact outlines the boundaries of linguo-stylistic analysis; they are due to the fact that the concept of the artistic style of a literary work includes, according to V. M. Zhirmunsky, not only linguistic means (which constitute the subject of S. in the exact sense), but also themes, images, composition of the work, its artistic content, embodied in verbal means, but not limited to words. At the same time, not all linguistic features of a work turn out to be the subject of S. So, the study of the rhythm of a poetic text, the sound instrumentation of a verse belongs to the field of poetics. The works of V. M. Zhirmunsky and V. V. Vinogradov played an important role in the development of poetry and in the development of the sociological and historical-literary study of linguistic styles (in particular, his attempts to distinguish poetry from poetics and, within poetry, to distinguish between its various sections). : S. language, S. speech, S. fiction). A prominent place in the history of Russian. The pages are occupied by the works of L. V. Shcherba, B. A. Larin, L. A. Bulakhovsky, G. O. Vinokur, B. V. Tomashevsky, and others. as the most debatable questions are raised about the nature of stylistic meaning, the principles of describing the functional styles of the language, the place of the language artistic literature in stylistic system literary language and the principles of its study, the problem of individual style, the role of statistical methods, etc.

2. HYPERBOLOY (from Gr. gyperbolē - exaggeration, excess) is a figurative expression, consisting in an exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty, meaning of what is described (My love, wide as the sea, cannot contain the life of the shore). Hyperbole and litotes have a common basis - a deviation from an objective quantitative assessment of an object, phenomenon, quality - therefore, they can be expressed in speech by language units of various levels (a word, a phrase, a sentence, a complex syntactic whole), therefore, attributing them to lexical figurative means is partly conditional. Another feature of hyperbole and litotes is that they may not take the form of a trope, but simply act as an exaggeration or understatement.

LITOTOY (from Gr. litótēs - simplicity) is a figurative expression that underestimates the size, strength, meaning of the described (- Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, no more than a thimble. - Gr.). Litota is also called inverse hyperbole.

PERIPHRASE (from periphrasis - retelling) is a descriptive phrase used instead of a word or phrase. (Burning down and rising from the ashes more than once, Moscow, even after Peter the Great remained a “purple-bearing widow,” did not lose its significance, it continued to be the heart of the Russian nationality, a treasury of the Russian language and art, a source of enlightenment and free thinking even in the darkest time).

A trend is a group of writers united by ideological and aesthetic views and artistically style features. This historical and typological formation covers both the content and formal levels of art, which are interconnected. According to Yu. Kuznetsov - "the dynamic unity of the conceptual ideological, aesthetic, philosophical, primarily stylistic principles covers the work of many writers, which has developed at a certain stage of the literary process."

V.M. Lesin and A.S. Pulinets ("Dictionary literary terms") identify the flow with the direction. In many university textbooks, the term "flow" is not distinguished as a separate specific phenomenon in the development of literature. In the article "Literary Direction" ("Literary Dictionary-Reference Book". - M., 1997. - P. 419) we read: "Style tendencies of a smaller scale than a literary trend are called currents, streams, etc. "We are of the opinion that trends are wider than currents, they can have currents. The category "flow" is narrow from the category "direction", "method ", but wider literary school. How constituent part Literary trends are considered by A. Sokolov, M. Kagan, A. Revyakin, V. Vorobyov, G. Sidorenko, Yu. Kuznetsov.

Literary tech and I must be concrete-historical, creative history, national features. Ukrainian symbolism, for example, appeared later than French. It differs from Western European and Russian. As Yu. Kuznetsov and I. Dziuba note, "Ukrainian symbolism as a whole was inferior to them in philosophical conceptuality and aesthetic certainty; at the same time, it has less esotericism, occultism and mysticism, more responses to life, it is not indifferent to the idea of ​​national liberation, which the time of the form of "national mysticism...".

A literary movement can have its own style. It should symbolists, futurists, impressionists.

artistic method

The artistic method (Greek Methodos - the way of research, the way of presentation) is one of the youngest categories in literary criticism. It appeared in the 20-30s of the XX century. This term was used by the Russian symbolists Bryusov, A. Bely. A. Sokolov believes that metol was born along with art. Aristotle was also interested in questions of method. He named three types of mimesis:

1) follow reality as it is;

2) such as they think or speak about him;

3) what should be.

Aristotle speaks of various methods of creativity, but the term "method" does not use. R. Descartes in the philosophical treatise "Discourses on the Method" (1637) outlined the basic principles of rationalism: the requirement for a strict systematization of knowledge, the development of canons and rules governing cognitive activity of people.

Leading scholars agree that the artistic method is general principles reflections of reality. "There is no work of art without an artistic method, just as there is no scientific research without scientific method"Theoretical views on the artistic method lack clarity. Metol is identified with direction, flow, style. V. Lesin and A. Pulinets understand the method as "the totality of the basic principles of artistic selection of living phenomena, their generalization, comprehension and ideological and aesthetic assessment from the standpoint of a certain aesthetic ideal, as well as the corresponding methods artistic display reality and its embodiment in the images of art". "Some scientists, - notes Yu. Borev, - define it as a set of artistic techniques and means, the second - as the principles of the aesthetic relationship of art to reality, the third - as a system of worldview guidelines for creativity. "Thinking about these definitions, Y. Borev notes that all three factors influence the formation of the method: "reality in its aesthetic richness, worldview in its historical and social certainty and artistic and mental material accumulated in previous periods.

D. Nalivaiko considers the method to be the main nerve of the direction, the category of epistemological and axiological. A. Tkachenko notes that the method, as an epistemological (cognitive) and axiological (evaluative) category, "does not have to be" the main nerve "directly. If only because art in general and the art of the word in particular, have their own" nerves ", which differ from philosophy, sociology, and other manifestations of human rationality. Another thing is science (including art and literary criticism), which uses certain methods ... analysis, synthesis, forecast. " According to E. Vasiliev, each method has directions, "a method, as a way artistic knowledge not limited by time and geographical boundaries, although historically determined. The direction is a community of artists based on the method, it is associated with a certain era and country (countries) "3. The terms "ancient realism", "Renaissance realism", "Enlightenment realism" are known, E. Vasilyev believes, can be applied to realism as a method , which, according to the observation of S. Petrov, is characterized by:

1) the universality of the image of a person;

2) social and psychological determinism;

3) historical point of view on life.

In the history of literature, the following methods are distinguished: baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, naturalism, modernism. P. Sakulin draws interesting mini-portraits of these methods. "Classicism - a slim body warrior in a proud pose, with a majestic outstretched hand. Sentimentalism - a tender, fragile girl, sitting with her chin resting on her hand, sad thoughtfulness on her face, her eyes dreamily directed into the distance: a tear hung on her eyelashes. Romanticism - a handsome young man in a raincoat and a wide-brimmed hat; curly hair blowing in the wind; vision, glowing with delight, turned to the sky. Artistic realism - a mature person with a healthy complexion, with a calm and thoughtful look. Naturalism - an ill-dressed man in a cap, his hair standing on end, a notebook in his hands, a kodak hanging on his belt; looks around uneasily and critically. Symbolism - a nervous young man; gesticulates strongly; loudly and drawlingly recites verses about the metaphysical beauty of the other world."

"The category of the artistic method," notes E. Vasiliev, "must be perceived not dogmatically and abstractly... The artistic method is... a living, figurative regulator creative activity. Methods are not accepted forms. They coexist, interpenetrate, enrich each other. Different artistic methods are combined in a separate literary direction, and in individual style writer."

Artistic methods explore reality in different ways. The realistic method provides a rational, deterministic approach to the world before the sensory-intuitive one, directs attention to public life(problems of economics, politics, morality, everyday life). Romantic focuses on the desired, due, on the ideal. He prefers a sensory-intuitive approach to reality, using and rational.

The realistic and romantic methods depict the world in a different sequence. Realistic above all material, approaching the spiritual, romantic - first spiritual. The features of these methods were well revealed by D. Chizhevsky, comparing them. The love of simplicity is a bias towards complexity; inclination "in a clear, built-up framework according to some prescriptions, or, conversely, the desire to give the work a deliberately unfinished, torn" free "form, the desire for transparent clarity of thought - neglect of clarity, they say, "depth" is more important, even if it was not always for the reader completely understandable"; the desire to work out a normalized, normalized, " clean language"- the search for a peculiar original language, love for linguistic oddities, the use of dialectisms and jargons; the desire to give an accurate expression - an attempt to reveal the greatest completeness of the linguistic manifestation, even if this is not in favor of creativity; "the desire to achieve a general impression of calm harmony, or, conversely, tension, movement, dynamics. Representatives of these two different types literary styles value is not the same: clarity or depth, simplicity or splendor, calmness or movement, completeness in itself or infinity of perspectives, completeness or striving and variability, concentration or diversity, traditional canonicity or novelty, etc. On the one hand, the ideal prevails calm, balanced beauty, on the other hand, beauty is not the only aesthetic value literary work, other values ​​stand next to beauty, and even the absurd is accepted in the aesthetic sphere.

M. Moklitsa classifies baroque, sentimentalism, romanticism and neo-romanticism as romantic methods, antique realism, classicism, enlightenment realism, critical realism, naturalism, socialist realism as realistic. “All of them,” the researcher notes, “are different, therefore they were formed in different eras, but related to each other by the same aesthetic attitudes: romantics of all times reproduce their own inner world, and this is the main thing for them (fantasy and imagination causes the spread of conditional forms), realists of all times are trying to recreate reality, therefore they subordinate art to life (in this case, the life-like or, using Aristotle's term, mimetic, that is, imitative forms in art dominate). During the era of modernism, organic compound romantic and realistic type of worldview, when the subject, that is, the artist, realized himself as main object for aesthetic exploration."

Artistic methods constantly alternate, directions are born only once, develop and subsequently cease to exist forever.