The theme of love in literature. The dynamics of emotional relationships in a married couple
The theme of love in Russian literature is one of the main ones. A poet or prose writer reveals to his reader the languor of the soul, experiences, suffering. And yes, it has always been in demand. Indeed, one may not understand the topic of the author's attitude to his own work, aspects of philosophical prose, but the words of love in literature are spoken so accessible that they can be used in various life situations. In what works is the theme of love most clearly reflected? What are the features of the authors' perception of this feeling? Our article will tell about it.
The place of love in Russian literature
Love has always existed in fiction. If we talk about domestic works, then Peter and Fevronia of Murom immediately come to mind from the story of the same name by Yermolai-Erasmus, which belongs to ancient Russian literature. Recall that other topics then, except for Christian ones, were taboo. This art form was strictly religious.
The theme of love in Russian literature arose in the 18th century. The impetus for its development was Trediakovsky's translations of works by foreign authors, because in Europe they already wrote with might and main about a wonderful love feeling and relationships between a man and a woman. Then there were Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Karamzin.
The theme of love in the works of Russian literature reached its special flowering in the 19th century. This era gave the world Pushkin, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Turgenev and many other luminaries. Each writer had his own, purely personal attitude to the theme of love, which can be read through the lines of his work.
Pushkin's love lyrics: the innovation of a genius
The theme of love in Russian literature of the 19th century reached special heights in the work of A. Pushkin. Lyrics, glorifying this bright feeling, are rich, multifaceted and contain a whole series of features. Let's sort them out.
Love as a reflection of personal qualities in "Eugene Onegin"
"Eugene Onegin" is a work where the theme of love in Russian literature sounds especially expressive. It shows not just a feeling, but its evolution throughout life. In addition, through love, the main images of the novel are revealed.
In the center of the story is the hero whose name is in the title. The reader is forced throughout the novel to be tormented by the question: is Eugene capable of love? Brought up in the spirit of the mores of the high-society metropolitan society, in feelings he is devoid of sincerity. Being in a "spiritual impasse", he meets Tatyana Larina, who, unlike him, knows how to sincerely and disinterestedly love.
Tatyana writes a love letter to Onegin, he is touched by this act of the girl, but no more. Disappointed, Larina agrees to marry the unloved and leaves for St. Petersburg.
The last meeting of Onegin and Tatyana happens after several years. Eugene confesses his love to a young woman, but she rejects him. The woman admits that she still loves, but is bound by the obligations of marriage.
Thus, the protagonist of Pushkin's novel fails the exam with love, he was frightened by an all-consuming feeling, rejected it. The revelation came too late.
Lyubov Lermontov - an unattainable ideal
Love for a woman was different for M. Lermontov. For him, this is a feeling that completely absorbs a person, this is a force that nothing can defeat. According to Lermontov, love is something that will definitely make a person suffer: "Everyone cried who loved."
This lyric is inextricably linked with women in the life of the poet himself. Katerina Sushkova is a girl with whom Lermontov fell in love at the age of 16. The poems dedicated to her are emotional, they tell about an unrequited feeling, the desire to find not only a woman, but also a friend.
Natalya Ivanova, the next woman in Lermontov's life, reciprocated. On the one hand, there is more happiness in the poems of this period, however, notes of deceit slip through here too. Natalya in many ways does not understand the deep spiritual organization of the poet. The themes of such works have also changed: now they are focused on feelings and passions.
The relationship with Love is reflected in a completely different way; the entire being of the poet is permeated here, nature speaks about it, even the Motherland.
Love becomes a prayer in poems dedicated to Maria Shcherbatova. Only 3 works have been written, but each of them is a masterpiece, a hymn of love. According to Lermontov, he found the very woman who understands him completely. Love in these poems is contradictory: it can heal, but also injure, execute and bring back to life.
The hard way to happiness of the heroes of "War and Peace" by Tolstoy
Considering how love is represented in fiction, attention should also be paid to the work of L. Tolstoy. His epic "War and Peace" is a work where love somehow touched each of the heroes. After all, the “family thought” that occupies in the novel central location is inextricably linked to love.
Each of the images goes through a difficult path, but in the end finds family happiness. There are exceptions: Tolstoy puts a kind of equal sign between a person's ability to love selflessly and his moral purity. But even this quality needs to be reached by a series of sufferings, mistakes that will ultimately purify the soul and make it crystal, capable of loving.
Let us recall the difficult path to happiness of Andrei Bolkonsky. Carried away by the beauty of Lisa, he marries her, but, quickly cooling down, is disappointed in marriage. He understands that he chose an empty and spoiled wife. Further - war, and oak - a symbol of spiritual flowering, life. Love for Natasha Rostova is what gave Prince Bolkonsky a breath of fresh air.
Test of love in the work of I. S. Turgenev
images of love in literature XIX century - these are the heroes of Turgenev. The author of each of them leads through the test of this feeling.
The only one who passes it is Arkady Bazarov from Fathers and Sons. Maybe that's why he is the ideal hero of Turgenev.
A nihilist who denies everything around him, Bazarov calls love "nonsense", for him it is just an ailment that can be cured. However, having met Anna Odintsova and falling in love with her, he changes not only his attitude to this feeling, but his worldview as a whole.
Bazarov confesses his love to Anna Sergeevna, but she rejects him. The girl is not ready for a serious relationship, she cannot renounce herself for the sake of another, even a loved one. Here she fails in the test of Turgenev. And Bazarov is the winner, he became the hero that the writer was looking for for himself in "The Nest of Nobles", "Rudin", "Ace" and other works.
"The Master and Margarita" - a mystical love story
The theme of love in Russian literature of the 20th century is growing and developing, getting stronger. Not a single writer and poet of this era avoided this topic. Yes, it could be transformed, for example, into love for people (remember Gorky's Danko) or for the Motherland (perhaps, this is a large part of Mayakovsky's work or works of the war years). But there is exceptional literature about love: these are soulful poems by S. Yesenin, poets of the Silver Age. If we talk about prose, this is first of all "The Master and Margarita" by M. Bulgakov.
The love that arises between the characters is sudden, it “pops out” from nowhere. The master draws attention to Margarita's eyes, so sad and lonely.
Lovers do not experience all-consuming passion, rather, on the contrary - it is a quiet, calm, domestic happiness.
However, at the most critical moment, only love helps Margarita save the Master and their feelings, even if not in the human world.
Yesenin's love lyrics
The theme of love in Russian literature of the 20th century is also poetry. Consider in this vein the work of S. Yesenin. The poet inextricably linked this bright feeling with nature, his love is extremely chaste and strongly tied to the biography of the poet himself. A striking example is the poem "Green Hairstyle". Here, all the features of L. Kashina, dear to Yesenin (the work is dedicated to her), are presented through the beauty of the Russian birch: a thin camp, pigtails-branches.
"Moscow Tavern" reveals to us a completely different love, now it is "infection" and "plague". Such images are connected, first of all, with the emotional experiences of the poet, who feels his uselessness.
Healing comes in the Bully's Love cycle. The culprit is A. Miklashevskaya, who cured Yesenin from torment. He again believed that there is true love, inspiring and reviving.
In his last poems, Yesenin condemns the deceit and insincerity of women, he believes that this feeling should be deeply sincere and life-affirming, give a person ground under his feet. Such, for example, the poem "Leaves are falling, leaves are falling ...".
about love
The theme of love in Russian literature of the Silver Age is the work of not only S. Yesenin, but also A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Blok, O. Mandelstam and many others. All of them are united very much by suffering and happiness - these are the main associates of the muse of poets and poetesses.
Examples of love in Russian literature of the 20th century are the great A. Akhmatova and M. Tsvetaeva. The latter is a “quivering doe”, sensual, vulnerable. Love for her is the meaning of life, what makes her not only create, but also exist in this world. “I like that you are not sick of me” is her masterpiece, full of light sadness and contradictions. And this is the whole Tsvetaeva. The same penetrating lyricism is saturated with the poem "Yesterday I looked into my eyes." This, perhaps, is a kind of anthem for all women in love: “My dear, what have I done to you?”.
A completely different theme of love in Russian literature is portrayed by A. Akhmatova. This is the intensity of all feelings and thoughts of a person. Akhmatova herself gave this feeling a definition - "the fifth season." But if it were not for him, the other four would not be visible. The love of the poetess is loud, all-affirming, returning to natural principles.
Chapter from the book by V.M. Rozin "LOVE AND SEXUALITY IN CULTURE, FAMILY AND VIEWS ON SEX EDUCATION". The book is in our "Love, family, sex and about ...".
Not so long ago I re-read B. Pasternak's Doctor Zhivago and thought about it. I hope everyone remembers that there are two main female characters in the novel - Tony, the doctor's wife, and Larisa. And here's what's interesting: the image of Tony is suspiciously positive through and through. Tonya selflessly and hopelessly loves her husband, she is ready, respecting his lofty feelings, even step aside, give him to Larisa. Her fate is tragic. The circumstances of the revolutionary time forced her to leave Russia with her family, to part with her husband. Zhivago's attitude towards Tonya is not love. Duty, conscience, respect, pity - anything but love. And Tonya herself understands this. And why, one asks, not to love Tonya? If you follow reason, then you should love her, she is so positive. But he loves Zhivago - passionately, deeply, directly - Larisa. Larisa, in her own words, is “broken, with a crack for life”; she is spiritually enslaved by Komarovsky and leaves with him at a tragic moment for Zhivago. Meanwhile, the best pages of the novel are dedicated to Larisa, her image is written out with the most delicate colors, with great feeling and tact: this is not earth woman, but the ideal, beauty and love itself, as they were understood by the poet, who lives in an alarming and tragic time. Remember the thoughts about Lara of the captive Zhivago:
Oh, how he loved her! How good she was! Just the way he always thought and dreamed, as he needed! But with what, by what side? Something that could be named and highlighted in the analysis. Oh no, oh no! But with that incomparably simple and swift line, with which all of it was circled from top to bottom by the Creator in one fell swoop, and in this divine outline it was handed over to his soul, as one wraps a bathed child in a tightly draped sheet.
Larisa's reciprocal feelings are no less deep and beautiful. The gift of love is like any other gift. He may be great, but without blessing he will not manifest. And we were definitely taught to kiss in the sky and then as children they were sent to live at the same time in order to test this ability on each other. Some kind of crown of compatibility, no sides, no degrees, neither high nor low, the equivalence of the whole being, everything gives joy, everything has become a soul.
However, there is an oddity here as well. Larisa begins life, losing her virginity as a schoolgirl; she lives with Komarovsky, and she is flattered that a handsome, graying man who is suitable for her father, who is applauded in meetings and written about in the newspapers, spends money and time on her, calls her a deity, takes her to theaters and concerts and, as they say, "mentally develops" her. Then she finds the strength to get away from Komarovsky. A few years later, he shoots him ... Finally, complete freedom. Larisa marries Pasha. She studies, works, goes to the front, works in a hospital. Meeting with Zhivago. Larisa fell in love with him, but they part. There is a civil war going on. Larisa works as a teacher, helps people, saves many... And here is another meeting with Zhivago. They open up to each other. Their life together is tragic (the threat of arrest) and beautiful. But Komarovsky appears and takes Larisa away - obviously by deceit, taking advantage of the danger hanging over Zhivago and his confusion, but still with her consent.
How can one explain why Zhivago loves Larisa and does not love his positive wife Tonya, and why Larisa, a woman of a beautiful soul and a clear mind, loving Zhivago again goes to Komarovsky and even lives with him for some time? Well, the reader may say, it's a matter of life. Why we do not love a woman is always clear, but why we love is never clear. As for Larisa, after all, Zhivago himself once said to her, referring to Komarovsky: “Do you know yourself so well? Human, especially female, nature is so dark and contradictory. In some corner of your disgust, you may be more subservient to him than to anyone else whom you love of your own free will, without compulsion.
And yet questions remain. The opposition Tonya - Larisa can be understood by remembering how many writers of the last century solved the issue of family and romantic love. Take, for example, "Eugene Onegin" or "Dubrovsky". Pushkin believes: love is one thing, and marriage and family are another. Romantic love, love-passion, love-attraction, the deification of a loved one did not coincide with ideas about marital relations. Behind marital relations were spiritual and religious principles, and behind romantic love - impulse, creative ecstasy, genius, nature. The conventional wisdom about the incompatibility of love and marriage, which gained particular popularity on the eve of the New Age, writes R. Shapinskaya, in the era of the formation of a new attitude to power - legitimation, was formulated by M. Montaigne: “A successful marriage, if it exists at all, rejects love and everything concomitant: he tries to repay her with friendship. The law of sociality reformulates the Christian formula, replacing spiritual categories (love, mercy, etc.) with economic categories (reliability, strength, support). The reason for the impossibility of maintaining love in marriage is, according to S. de Beauvoir, that the spouse loses her erotic attractiveness. A "trap" is made in marriage - "although by assumption he socializes erotica, he succeeds only in killing her." A little higher, Shapinskaya notes: “In traditional Russian culture, “marriage for love” is embodied only in romantic discourse or “scandalous” stories (except, of course, romanticized “arranged” marriages). A love marriage that did not receive the approval of the "seniors" could not bring anything but misfortune.
A.I. Goncharov in his novel The Precipice solves the dilemma of love and marriage in the same way as Alexander Sergeevich, and Stendhal in Red and Black, and Tolstoy in Anna Karenina. Tolstoy wrote that he often thought about falling in love and could not find a place or meaning for it. And this place and meaning are very clear and definite: to facilitate the struggle of lust with chastity. Falling in love, the great writer argued, should precede marriage in young men who cannot endure complete chastity. This is the place of love. When it breaks into people's lives after marriage, it is inappropriate and disgusting.
These writers diluted romantic love and marital relations in different directions, claiming that they are incompatible. For the latter, completely different words were also used: spouse, friend, husband, wife, comrades (along the path of life), etc. If you happen to walk along the alleys of the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow, pay attention to the epitaphs on the gravestones of the 18th and 19th centuries. Inscriptions like: “To my wife and friend” are common, but I also remember such a wonderful epitaph:
A tender wife and a true friend,
A mother who dedicated her life to her children,
Leaving the light still in blooming years,
Her husband and seven children mourn.
Obviously, Boris Pasternak also proceeds from the same models of love and marriage: he loves Zhivago Larisa, but he regrets and considers Tonya his wife. Therefore, there is no happiness for them with Larisa, but only delight and suffering, coincidences and pain.
So, in Russian and not only Russian literature of the 19th century, a model has developed that breeds romantic love and marriage. True, already in the middle of this century, another model, if I may say so, of civil marriage began to take shape. What is typical for her? The weakening of the religious principle, respect for the personality of the spouses, the ideas of cooperation and emancipation. Disillusioned with the ideals of romantic love, N.P. Ogarev writes to his future, second wife, Natalya Tuchkova: “I think the only woman with whom I could live under the same roof is you, because we have the same respect for other people's freedom, respect for any reasonable egoism, and not at all this unpleasant pettiness that weighs down a person with worries and his subsequent affection, which tries to take possession of his whole being, without any respect for the human person. Natalie Tuchkova completely shared the views of Ogarev, but it is known how it all ended: having lived with Ogarev for seven years in full agreement and understanding, she fell in love with Herzen and went to him.
The third wife of Ogarev, Mary (formerly a London woman of easy virtue), with whom he lived for 18 years in peace and harmony until his death, did not even understand Russian, and even more so his poems or political activities. But she loved him, adored him, created all the conditions for him to normal life and work, i.e. was just a wife. “Mary Sutherland,” Lidia Lebedinskaya writes in her story about Ogarev, idolized him without understanding. And over the years, Ogarev began to think that, perhaps, this is natural, if so, and he no longer tried to explain anything. However, this was not necessary for Mary. Everything that her husband did, obviously seemed to her in a halo of immutable justice and rightness.
Isn't it a curious evolution: starting with romantic love, the attraction of the heart, passion, Ogarev comes to the idea of subordinating love to reason, in order to finally calm down in an almost pagan understanding of love. Of course, everything can happen in life, but it is unlikely that Natalie would have left her husband if she understood marriage in the same way as Tatyana Larina.
I love you (why dissemble?), But I am given to another; I will be faithful to him forever.
The model of civil marriage in terms of values develops in the 19th century in two directions: towards the bourgeois ideal of the family and towards the revolutionary-democratic one. The first ideal finds its expression in American model cyclic marriage (T. Dreiser, R. Kent, E. Hemingway), the second - in the model of communist marriage. In both cases, love (close to romantic) is assumed, and the family is built precisely on its basis. The hero of Dreiser, financier Frank Cowperwood, as you remember, every time passionately and deeply loves another chosen one. He leaves one family and creates a new one; the family left behind receives a certain maintenance. The wife in the American model of marriage not only manages the household, the house, brings up the children, she is a beloved woman. It has both rights and independence. But if love ends or the contractual relationship is violated, the marriage breaks up.
In the communist model of marriage, legal and economic relations are replaced by cooperation, conscience, morality, morality. Family life K. Marx is an unattainable model in this regard: passionate, romantic love for Jenny von Westphalen, carried through all his life, a large family, mutual assistance and cooperation of spouses, unity of views and ideals. This model assumes that the family is built not only on love, but also on conscious humanistic and even communist principles. Another question is to what extent such a model of marriage could be implemented in practice. Our parents sometimes succeeded, but today it turns out only as an exception. It is clear that the communist model of marriage allows for divorce and the formation of a new family.
is devoted to the study of how their idealistic ideas about female beauty, love, and marriage are expressed in the concepts of Russian writers of the 19th century. This chapter (this is due to the logic of the work) is completely devoted to the analysis of the works of Russian literature of the XIX century, i.e. pre-Chekhov tradition. Such a review is necessary in order to show what Chekhov started from, rethinking and reevaluating the prevailing ideas about the ideal of female beauty. The dissertation examines the most representative, from our point of view, works that reflect these trends. Of course, this review does not claim to be comprehensive.
Despite the fact that the idea of female beauty changes from era to era, the writer's desire for the ideal remains constant. Beauty in Russian literature of the 19th century is an ethical category, it is inextricably linked with goodness. Pushkin and Gogol set the vector for two directions in the perception and depiction of female beauty. On the one hand, there is an ideal, transcendental image created by the poet, on the other, a tragic antinomy of the ideal and the real, the spiritual - the carnal, the Divine - the devilish. Oleg Kling rightly says that the antinomy "high - low" in the depiction of love runs through all Russian literature - Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy. The researcher shows how this antinomy was refracted in different ways in the works of symbolists and post-symbolists 31 . We consider how these two trends were embodied in the works of Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century. We also show the influence of George Sand and her novels on the formation of a new type of women and marital relations, which were reflected in the works of Russian writers of the 19th century.
A poem by A.S. Pushkin "I remember a wonderful moment" is an example of how creative fiction and fantasy embellish reality. The poet creates a legend, elevating love, the inspirer of which is not even a woman, but some unearthly, angelic substance - a “genius of pure beauty”, an incorporeal creature, ephemeral, like a “vision”, a spirit hovering in the empyrean. This deity with a real female name rises above reality, attuning the reader to a sublime perfect love. Although real prototype and Pushkin's attitude to a particular woman - A.P. Kern - diverged from the glorified poetic image 32 , it is important for us that the poet created the cult of an exalted woman in accordance with the ethical and aesthetic ideas of his era.
In his early essay The Woman (1829), Gogol refers to Plato's dialogue with his student Telekles about the essence of female beauty and asserts the superiority of the feminine principle - physical beauty, art and love, which inspire a man. Together, masculine and feminine create an ideal harmonious unity. This is close to Schiller's concept. However, in more later works writer, material beauty evokes sodomy passions and is destructive to the soul. Beauty and holiness in Gogol, as a rule, are incompatible. According to Gogol, female earthly beauty is evil. Wanting to establish the harmony of relationships in marriage as the spiritual unity of male and female principles, Gogol paradoxically destroys the idyll. His Philemon and Baucis - old-world landowners- live in complete harmony and harmony with each other, but their relationship is absolutely devoid of any kind of erotica.
In the 1840s - 1860s of the 19th century, the "women's question" was clearly and sharply identified in Russian society. The works of George Sand were a kind of cultural detonator. The views of George Sand, who affirmed carnal love, came into conflict with the religious-patriarchal idea of the position and role of women in the family and society. With her works, the writer established a new morality in relation to a woman.
The writings and personality of George Sand had the most direct impact on Chernyshevsky. The novel Jacques, in which "the problem of the love triangle was solved in accordance with the principle of the" free heart ", inspired Chernyshevsky to apply the literary model both in his own marriage and in the novel What Is To Be Done? Chernyshevsky was not only an ardent supporter and follower of the ideas of George Sand in the matter of the liberation of women and the new ethics of relations in marriage, he also developed the main thoughts of the writer and gave them a more global meaning, transforming them into a theory of the reorganization of society on the basis of universal equality (I. Paperno ). Destroying the social and Christian code of morality, Chernyshevsky in his works rationalized and "legitimized" a woman's right to adultery. For all the utopianism and vulnerability, especially from an artistic point of view, Chernyshevsky's novel, his position in relation to the emancipation of women was not ignored by Russian writers and philosophers.
Dostoevsky reacted sharply to the way in which Georges Sand's ideas were transformed by Chernyshevsky. The way the author of the social utopia solved the complex problems of love triangles, directly linking the project of the reorganization of society with the transformation of relations in the family and marriage, evokes a full sarcasm rebuke in the story "The Eternal Husband". Dostoevsky showed how, on the one hand, love relationships fit into familiar literary schemes and how, on the other hand, the motives of human behavior can be unexpected and unpredictable in real life. Guiding us along the path of well-known schemes of love triangles described in the literature (Turgenev's "Provincial Girl"), or referring to the images of the noble robbers and avengers Hugo and Schiller, Dostoevsky unexpectedly blows up the situation with a farcical scene in which it turns out that the deceived husband was in love into your opponent. Dostoevsky opens the underground of the human psyche, which cannot be calculated, as the architects of heaven on earth want to do, a new society in which everyone will coexist in harmony. Dostoevsky is interested in such cases of behavior that do not fit into the usual schemes, but which cannot be ignored when we are talking about love and marriage.
Goncharov was ambivalent about George Sand and argued with Belinsky. The ideas of women's emancipation, of course, did not leave Goncharov indifferent. However, he believed that the issue was more complex than simple declarations of the equality of women and men.
Love is the basis of all three of Goncharov's novels. In disputes about what is artistic truth and how to portray reality, as well as the relationship between the ethical and aesthetic components in a work of art, Goncharov consistently continued to defend the position of idealism even in those years when attacks on idealism from naturalism began. Soberly aware of the abyss that separates reality from the ideal, the writer believed that it was necessary that a work of art lead the reader to the ideal, unity truth, goodness and beauty. For Goncharov, these are the truisms of aesthetics, the basis of Schiller's concept. Goncharov in his novels seeks to present the reader with an image of a harmonious personality, in which a sober enlightened mind, active energy, morality, spirituality, a sense of beauty and bodily beauty are combined. And this, as the German scientist P. Tiergen convincingly proves using the example of the novel Oblomov, coincides with Schiller's ideas about the connection between spirit and matter, more specifically, about the inseparable connection between the physical and moral and aesthetic state of a person. The Russian writer believed in the high, transformative power of love, which gives impetus to the mind and heart, awakens from sleep, inspires creativity and art. On the opposition, sleep is awakening, life is necrosis, petrification, Goncharov's novels are built. In the novel Oblomov, Olga Ilyinskaya, taking on the role of Pygmalion, tries to breathe life into the inactive soul of Ilya Ilyich. However, having failed as Pygmalion in relations with Oblomov, Olga becomes Galatea in love and marital relations with Stolz and successfully fulfills this role. Goncharov did not stop at the ideal married couple he created in the novel Oblomov as the standard of love and the image of Olga Ilyinskaya as the ideal of female beauty. In his latest novel, The Precipice, the writer shows the endless process of searching for the female ideal that embodies the harmony of the trinity. truth, goodness and beauty. Boris Raisky is an artist obsessed with the idea of finding such an artistic image that would connect the ideal and reality as an indivisible whole. In The Break, he takes on the role of Pygmalion, only he can't seem to find his one and only Galatea. Pygmalion-Paradise dreams of combining bodily beauty with spiritual beauty. Undoubtedly, for Goncharov, as well as for his hero, the artist Raysky, the highest type of beauty is embodied in the image Sistine Madonna. It was the Renaissance, earthly beginning, combined with spirituality in the image of Raphael's Madonna, that attracted Goncharov.
Turgenev presented the contradiction between the ideal and the real in two types of women: a Bacchante woman who awakens irrational feelings in a man, and a woman who embodies the harmonious rational principle of the ideal world of antiquity. Love captures the heroes of Turgenev, depriving them of their individuality. In the poem in prose "Love", Turgenev briefly and succinctly formulates the state of a man in love who feels the invasion of someone else's "I" as the death of his own "I" . Therefore, love is perceived by Turgenev as a feeling, tragic for an earthly being, whose flesh is finite. Turgenev's Bacchantes enslave men ("Correspondence", "Smoke", "Spring Waters"). Love-slavery, depicted by Turgenev, evokes associations with the works of Sacher-Masoch. The similarity was already noted by Turgenev's contemporaries, and the Austrian writer himself considered himself a successor to his Russian colleague. Nostalgia for the lost Greek world, its integrity and beauty, is undoubtedly present in Turgenev's discourse. Recall that even in an early poem dedicated to Venus, Turgenev says that for modern man Venus is a myth, and he worships not the goddess Venus, but her copy, the beauty of the man-made image created by the artist from marble. Meeting with the perfection of ancient beauty in real life (“Three meetings”) is a dream, a poetic illusion. The narrator loves a dream, a myth, a statue, an ideal, the image that constructs his imagination, art, and not a real woman - a creation of nature. Philosophical reflections Turgenev are close to Schiller's, his idea that art is a game, and also that the return to natural principles, the "golden age" is enriched with knowledge, moral responsibility, freedom of choice. According to Schiller, a cultured person can return to his integrity through an ideal.
The evolution of Tolstoy's views from the approval of the ideal of harmonious relations between a man and a woman to the complete denial of marriage is considered on the example of two significant, in our opinion, works of the writer. The work for the first time made a complete comparative analysis showing the evolution of Tolstoy's views on marital relations. "Family Happiness" (1859) and "Kreutzer Sonata" (1889) are two milestones on the path of Tolstoy's comprehension of the dialectic of love, the whole complexity of the relationship between a man and a woman who are united in marriage. The story "Family Happiness" is a prelude to "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina", "Kreutzer Sonata" is an afterword. "Family Happiness" was written by Tolstoy before his marriage in 1862 and before he became acquainted with Schopenhauer's ideas, which he accepted with great sympathy. The Kreutzer Sonata reflected the ideas and moods of not only Tolstoy, a man who survived the crisis of family relations, but also a writer-philosopher who reconsidered his former ideals, ideas about love and marriage at the turn of the epochs. Both works are confessions: in the early story - a woman's reflection on marital relations, in the later - the confession of a man who became the murderer of his wife. Beethoven's sonata Quasi una fantasia (Moonlight Sonata) sounds twice in "Family Happiness": at the beginning, at the moment of the birth of love between the characters, and at the end of the story after the experienced tests of "family happiness"; sonata No. 9 for violin and piano in A major, opus 47, by the same composer defines the dramatic conflict of the story "The Kreutzer Sonata". Both verbal works under consideration are a kind of parallel to musical ones. Musical inclusions in the structure of Tolstoy's narrative explicate the subconscious of the human psyche, open thin world the intuitions of the heroes in those moments of emotional tension, when, according to Schopenhauer, the desires and feelings of a person are not amenable to logical, rational awareness. In "Family Happiness" Tolstoy presents his concept of the family, which is close to the idea of J. J. Rousseau that love passions are detrimental to family happiness. Tolstoy's understanding of femininity and marital relations is opposed to the ideas of gender equality that were gaining momentum in Russia in the middle of the 19th century, free love and new ideas about marriage inspired by George Sand. The ideal of motherhood and the family, which received the highest positive embodiment in War and Peace, and then carried through by Tolstoy through the ordeal in Anna Karenina, has not lost its significance for the writer. Having created the image of a woman caught in a whirlwind of passions, who has lost her integrity, faced with a choice between feelings and conjugal duty, between love and motherhood, the writer showed the crisis of the patriarchal family and stood up for female virtue in marriage. According to Tolstoy, beauty without virtue is evil. The Kreutzer Sonata was written by Tolstoy at a time when issues of marriage and the right to divorce were being discussed in society, about the possibility of a woman choosing a spouse for love, when the crisis in his own family relations coincided with a deeper spiritual conflict, with a sense of the meaninglessness of earthly existence, the end of which is death. Earthly existence is deprived of harmony, where there is a constant struggle between living beings. Man, Tolstoy shows in the articles of this period, is by nature a carnivorous creature, capable of destroying his own kind. A man and a woman, who differ from each other both in their physiological structure and in their upbringing, cannot come to an understanding. The war between the sexes, according to Tolstoy, is a war on the biological level. Naturalistic features in the depiction of carnal love, biological determinism, and the undermining of the foundations of the patriarchal family corresponded to new trends in European literature. Therefore, it is not surprising that Tolstoy, along with Zola, Ibsen, Nietzsche, Wagner and other representatives of modernism, was ranked among the degenerates by Max Nordau. The main thing that distinguished Tolstoy from the naturalist writers, whom he himself criticized, was that the Russian writer gave the reader a positive, ideal. Deconstructing and overthrowing the carnal beauty of the female body, as well as destroying the very idea of marital relations, Tolstoy, together with his hero, protests against nature - the division of people into two warring sexes. Tolstoy brings his hero (and himself in solidarity with him in the "Afterword" to the "Kreutzer Sonata") to the idea of asexual marriages, to brotherhood. This was an extreme expression of the writer's awareness of the crisis of previous ideas about the ideal of femininity. Exposing marriage, which, according to Tolstoy, is based on pleasure, the writer says that love between the sexes distances a person from love for God. After the turning point of the 1880s, sexless love for all people and for God became the ideal for Tolstoy. On the ashes of their former ideals - the patriarchal family, motherhood - sanctified by the trinity truth, goodness and beauty, Tolstoy affirms the Christian ideal of God, in the perfect image of which this triad was embodied. The story "The Kreutzer Sonata" caused controversy. In this regard, the story of N.S. Leskov “About the “Krezer Sonata” (1890), which affirms the ideal of motherhood.
IN IVchapter "Demythologization of the female ideal and marital relations in the era of skepticism" examines how the ideas of Nietzsche, the social and cultural modernization of society, women's emancipation aggravated the problem of gender relations and how this is reflected in the works of Western European writers who influenced the new idea of a woman. In Chekhov's work, the idealistic tendencies of Russian writers of the 19th century are being revised.
Chekhov's formation as a writer falls on the period when in post-reform Russia there is a rapid development of capitalism and a change in the socio-cultural paradigm of life. A new culture is being formed that meets the bourgeois tastes and demands of the "outcasts" who rush to the big cities. With the destruction of the primacy of the elite classical culture the boundaries of “high” and “low” are blurred, a situation of cultural polycentrism is emerging, culture is developing “in breadth” and horizontally. With the development of new genres of mass literature, the communication space is expanding. Russia is entering into closer interaction with Western culture. Moreover, the dialogue of cultures took place not only at the level of high art. Chekhov began his journey in literature, collaborating on mass publications in the 1880s. Work in humorous magazines, as well as other factors, in particular, natural science education, influenced the formation of a different worldview, different from the "classics" who assigned a high educational mission to literature.
Men reacted differently to the change in the social role of women at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries: from destructive irony (Nietzsche) to serious controversy in the works of philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists. This most important theme found expression both in the works of high and popular literature. The "Women's Question" polarized society. We consider how the works of two major writers of the turn of the century, Ibsen and Strindberg, expressed opposite points of view on the problem of female emancipation, the role of women in the family. Ibsen, in whose works the images of strong independent women who help a man find his "I", find love and fulfillment in creativity (Hilda, Irena), women who need freedom of choice (Nora, Elis, Hedda), gained a reputation as a feminist. The drama "A Doll's House", which questions the patriarchal traditions of the family, shocked Victorian society and gave impetus to controversy: Max Nordau responded by writing the play "The Right to Love", which defended the interests of a "healthy" family, and Strindberg wrote the short story "A Doll's House". In contrast to Nordau's moralizing, Strindberg shows the confrontation between a man and a woman as an eternal conflict, a "fatal duel" - this theme runs like a red thread through all the works of the Swedish writer. Strindberg - a supporter of the patriarchal family - in the book "Marriages" (1884-1885) advocates the need for proper education of women from an early age. Many of the ideas of Strindberg, a consistent Darwinist, are also close to Chekhov, although he did not take such a radical position on the women's issue. The image of the breakup of the family is something new that enters the drama of the late 19th - early 20th century with a change in the ratio of roles in society, the emancipation of women.
Using the plays of Ibsen, Strindberg and Chekhov as an example, the dissertation shows how the change in the social role of a woman was reflected in dramatic techniques -
correlation of roles in the system of characters. The idea of a strong woman displacing a man from the stage of life is embodied in the dramaturgy of Ibsen (Ghosts, Hedda Gabler), Strindberg (Miss Julie, Father, Pelican). The father in these plays is presented as an off-stage character or, as in Strindberg's "Father", a man defeated by a woman who has lost his masculine properties. In Chekhov's plays, the significantly absent image of the father is a plot-forming element (The Seagull), a semantic marker pointing to the disintegration of the patriarchal family in Three Sisters, where adult children are not viable, in The Cherry Orchard, where the role of "patriarch" is taken over by the old Firs servant.
Frustration of men towards strong woman, femme fatale is reflected in the works of many decadent mystics, such as Octave Mirbeau, Ganz Gaines Evers, and others. The dominance of a woman evokes mystical horror. Sadism in a woman is presented as a physiological exaltation of love - "The Garden of Torment" by O. Mirbeau. In the mystical story of Evers, the image of a spider woman, who lures men into her nets and kills them like a female spider, takes on the meaning of a symbol. The Swedish writer Ola Hansson, one of whose stories “The Split Self” was published in Suvorin’s Novoye Vremya, tries to understand the psychophysiological basis of a split personality, the cause of instinctive fear, a sexual nightmare, what love becomes for his male characters. His stories show the types of broken men, defeated by women, often driven to suicide. Sexual relations cause fear in the soul of sophisticated, nervous men before a new type of Amazon woman. Chekhov's works, like Hansson's, show the dual psycho-physiological nature of men with feminine traits and women with masculine ones. The French researcher J. de Proyart has well demonstrated this seeming paradox on the example of "Drama on the Hunt" 33 . There are dominant women and weak men both in Chekhov's early and late works ("Champagne", "Witch", "Tina", "Jumper", "Spouse", "Anna on the Neck", "Ariadne", "The Seagull", "Three sisters"). The sexual dominance of a woman drives a high school student (Volodya) to suicide. Zoological comparisons illustrating the essence of men and women are often found in the writer's works. But unlike the decadent mystics, Chekhov's zoomorphism in the characteristics of the characters testifies to the connection of the writer with Darwinism. For example, in Chekhov we come across a metaphor characterizing the relationship of the sexes: a female fly drinks blood from a spider (“Neighbors”), but this metaphor does not grow to the scale of a sexual nightmare, as in Evers, and the image is not the basis of the plot.
We do not have direct evidence that Chekhov was familiar with Hansson's works, therefore it cannot be stated with complete certainty that Chekhov's "Fear" is a response to Ola Hansson's story "The Divided Self", although this possibility cannot be ruled out either, because Chekhov was undoubtedly familiar with the publications of the Novoe Vremya newspaper. Most likely, Chekhov's "Fear" is a response to the topical problem of the interaction of the sexes, which has been widely discussed in the literature. Silin's fear is connected with the fact that he does not understand his relationship with his wife and he develops a neurosis, a fear of life. Fear, as follows from the content of the story, is a consequence of the fall. However, despite the fact that both men, introduced into sin by a woman, begin to experience fear of life, in Chekhov's story, unlike Hansson, Evers, Mirbeau, there is no demonization of a woman. On the contrary, we know that Silina's wife, who married without love, is unhappy. The story has an almost vaudeville ending: the husband, who forgot his cap in his friend's room, incriminates his lovers and leaves home, "as if afraid of being chased." Fear is passed on to a friend. Irony over the guilty exiles from paradise permeates the narrative.
Skalkovsky's book "On Women. Thoughts old and new” is interesting as an alternative view of gender relations. In contrast to the decadent trend, in Skalkovsky's book - a product of mass literature - actual problem time is presented in a light ironic form. Skalkovsky's compilation book "On Women" went through six editions in a year and was very popular. From the standpoint of male chauvinism, the author discredits women. In his book, women are sued for infidelity in marriage, the problems of divorce, prostitution are considered, the economic dependence of women on men in marriage is assessed as a manifestation of legal prostitution, the harm of female education and emancipation is affirmed, the inability of women to art and their inability to manage money, as well as to engage in economic issues in the family. The book caused a resonance, both serious and mass publications responded to it. Grassroots culture picked up the themes and the ironic tone towards women. Chekhov's story "About Women" is an irony over Skalkovsky's male chauvinism. Quotations and allusions to Skalkovskiy's treatise are also found in other Chekhov's works. Although the book went against the progressive ideas of the time and was not an original conceptual work, it is nevertheless a valuable evidence of understanding and popularization of topical issues of the time.
In the story "Joke" (in its first edition) there are not only references to Skalkovsky's book, but also the very type of behavior of the hero, which expresses a clear gender superiority of a man, reminiscent of the position of a connoisseur of women's hearts, the author of the treatise "On Women". Subsequently, having reworked the story, Chekhov gave it an elegiac finale in the spirit of Turgenev's and his own works, such as "Verochka", "A House with a Mezzanine", etc.
The story "Verochka" is usually interpreted as a variation of the "Russian man on rendez-vous" theme. However, Chekhov showed the situation as an obsolete cliché, where both heroes are he and she- ridiculous. Verochka is a literary type of a girl who has mastered bookish ideals, which she tries to realize on a date, but the hero does not understand her. Similar situation often found in Chekhov as in early works(“Fatherlessness”), and in later ones (“Ionych”, “At Friends”), etc. The hero of the story “On the Way” was correlated both by Chekhov’s contemporaries and subsequent interpreters with the Rudin type. There is undoubtedly a connection with Turgenev, but with another work - with the story "A Strange Story". The plot, in which a girl from a good family with fanatical self-denial followed her teacher, a holy fool for the sake of faith, was transformed by Chekhov. It is with the story of his own faith that Likharev captivates his casual interlocutor. Changing ideals, Likharev each time makes them his religion. He thinks of himself as an ideological mentor of women who become his victims (wife, mother, daughter). Chekhov showed a very important feature of such people - the inconsistency of ideological passions. This is due to the fact that ideals cannot be eternal, they become obsolete over time, and then there is a need for a new faith. Ilovaiskaya did not embark on the path of self-denial in the name of ideals; she woke up in time from the dream into which Likharev plunged her with the magic of his speeches. The fact that the writer gives the heroine the opportunity to sober up and get away from the spell of lofty ideas was Chekhov's dispute with the popular Tolstoy and populist concepts about the relationship between a man and a woman, built on a common ideals. Chekhov leads this dispute both in the ironic feuilleton "In Moscow" and in the story "The Wife". Chekhov showed that not only the ideal of a woman who completely dissolves in the thoughts and deeds of a man, a “noble slave”, an associate of her ideological mentor, is outdated, but also that any ideals are not eternal. The impact of a man's ideas on a woman, and then the release from his influence, is also shown in an earlier story " Good people» (1886). The author is ironic both to the heroes of the story and to those ideals in which they fanatically believe and turn them into dogmas. It enables the heroine to realize from personal experience that ideals eventually turn into "old trash". In these stories, as in latest work"The Bride" (1903), Chekhov shows the liberation of a woman from the influence of an ideological mentor. The influence of the hero on women in the story "My Life" is not so clearly shown. Misail Poloznev does not seek to play the role of a mentor who re-educates women. In general, Misail Poloznev, who defends the moral laws in his polemic with Dr. Blagovo, which he puts above all else and himself strictly follows them, is rightly interpreted by A.P. Skaftymov as a character close not only to the ideas of Tolstoy, but also of Chekhov. It is often perceived by researchers as positive hero(I.N. Sukhikh). However, in our opinion, the ending of the story does not allow us to conclude that Chekhov considers the path of his hero as a positive experience that must be followed. Misail himself says about himself that he “has become like Radish and, like him, bores with his useless instructions” (S. 9, 279). Although the author sympathizes with his hero, women who are initially inspired by his ideas are not on the same path with him. Masha Dolzhikova leaves her husband, citing biblical wisdom that "everything passes"; sister Cleopatra dies, unable to bear the role of an ideological worker and a free woman without prejudice; Anyuta Blagovo, who is in love with Misail, meets him at the grave of Cleopatra and caresses their common niece, however, entering the city, one “solid, stern one” comes. One cannot but agree with the witty observation of the Canadian researcher Douglas Clayton, who showed that Likharev failed in the role of Pygmalion. Let us add from ourselves that Chekhov and all other heroes like him failed in this role. However, Chekhov shows that the emancipation of women is a complex process that leads not only to the frustration of men, but also women in a new role do not feel happy (“A Boring Story”, “Indian Kingdom”, “On the Cart”, “The Story of an Unknown Man ”, “In the native corner”, “Case from practice”, “Three years”, “Seagull”, “Three sisters”).
In the stories "Darling", "Ariadne", "Lady" with a dog, in our opinion, Chekhov's break with the idealistic idea of the relationship between a man and a woman is most clearly expressed. All three stories are an argument with Tolstoy's concept of femininity, family and marriage.
The story "Darling" is Chekhov's hidden polemic with Tolstoy's ideal
femininity and motherhood. Whether or not readers of Darling share Tolstoy's well-known point of view that Chekhov wanted to curse, but instead blessed his heroine, her image is perceived as an archetype. Modern literary scholars correlate the "darling" with the mythological images of Psyche, Echo, the heroine of Flaubert's story "A Simple Soul", and Olenka's happy marriage unions with the old world idyll. The correlation of the heroine with mythological and literary prototypes convinces us that the Chekhovian heroine condenses in herself not individual, unique features, but universal, eternal ones. In the typology of the complex mother complex developed by Jung, the darling coincides with the type of "daughter", a woman who is completely dependent on a man. The deepest archetypal patriarchal idea of the absence of a form in a woman, as the essence of her nature, receives theoretical understanding in Jung's concept. According to Jung, female formlessness, emptiness is the key to understanding the mystery of the union of male and female principles, by analogy with how opposites - Yin and Yang - are connected. In Chekhov's story, the heroine is the embodiment of femininity, the expression of the signs of sex in its purest form. Olenka is a hollow vessel, which, Tolstoy is right, can be filled with any content - the spirit that carries the masculine principle. She feels her integrity, fullness only when she is a member of a couple, in unity with the male spirit that fertilizes her. Left at the "empty nest", Olenka suffers from depression, her inner emptiness changes her external form - she loses weight, grows stupefied, grows old. With each new loss of a member of the couple, the outside world around it changes - the house and the yard. The word "emptiness", very often found on the pages of this short story, is key. It coexists in tandem with fullness, fullness. In the story "Darling" Chekhov expressed what he failed to implement in his plan. student years dissertation "History of sexual authority". As in the synopsis of the dissertation, written under the influence of Darwin's works, in the story Chekhov indirectly draws analogies between the processes occurring in the course of evolution in the animal world and in human society. It is impossible not to see the physiological dominant in the description of Olenka Plemyannikova, as well as in the perception of the heroine by others. It is characteristic that Tolstoy, in his version of Chekhov's story, removed the erotic details in Olenka's portrait and softened the irony. Chekhov's view of the physiological basis of the nature of the relationship between a man and a woman is objective and devoid of Tolstoy's revealing pathos. The physiological component of a person, like all living things, cannot be assessed. In "Darling" Olenka's maternal feelings for the high school student Sashenka are a natural continuation of her organic need to love, forgetting about her own "I", the need to dissolve in the "Other". Chekhov showed that the maternal instinct in a woman is the strongest instinct. But Chekhov presents motherhood not as an ideal, but as a natural part of female nature, and therefore does not raise motherhood to the height to which Tolstoy raises it. Chekhov's story is polemical in relation to Tolstoy's concept of femininity. However, the writer's irony is directed to modern people who have lost touch with nature, the naive and natural perception of the world, which was characteristic ancient man and which is embodied in Olenka with such completeness. This “complexity of simplicity” (V.B. Kataev) gives rise to a striking effect of volume and multidimensionality of the image, with all its apparent primitiveness and deliberate schematism.
The story "Ariadne", the content of which, at first glance, is a love triangle and misogynistic reasoning of the hero, to which he comes after a collapse in love, in cultural context gets very important overtones. The context of the story helps to show how Chekhov undermines the hero's idealistic ideas, debunks the dogmas formed by upbringing and cultural tradition. "Ariadne" is good example images of the process of demythologization of exhausted ideals, taken for granted, which lead to an illusory world. Chekhov's text is replete with cultural associations and allusions. And if the connection with ancient Greek mythology is not so obvious, then the position that "Ariadne" is Chekhov's polemical answer to the "Kreutzer Sonata" has almost become a commonplace in literary criticism. If we compare Chekhov's story with the myth of Ariadne, then, in our opinion, Chekhov is not so much interested in the plot and characters of the heroes of the myth as in the image and idea of the labyrinth. Chekhov distanced himself from the moralizing of Tolstoy, from whose authority he finally freed himself by the time of the creation of Ariadne. Unlike Tolstoy's work, at the end of the story the hero-narrator dreams not about how to punish the temptress Ariadne, who, as it seems to him, led him into a labyrinth of vice, idleness, vulgarity, and not about how to take revenge on his rival, but about , how to free yourself from the web that you have fallen into by throwing the holder of the thread from your hands. But the hero of the story Shamokhin got entangled not only in love networks. He also fell into the labyrinth of his own ideas, illusions and dogmas. He, like many men in his circle, had an idealistic vision of women and love. Like his literary predecessors, who fell in love with the image of an ancient statue, Shamokhin, who connected the name of a mythological heroine embodying perfection with a real girl, creates a sexual fetish. However, as Shamokhin recognizes the object of his adoration, the gap with the mythological image increases and deepens. Seeing the grin of a beast in a revived marble figurine, he becomes a misogynist and now preaches a different morality, close to the hero of the Kreutzer Sonata, and almost word for word repeats Strindberg's ideas outlined by him in Marriages. Ariadne in a new guise, as Shamokhin tells about her, is reminiscent of Turgenev's women - priestesses of sensual love, who enslave weak men. By mythologizing his chosen one, Shamokhin becomes a participant in the myth he himself created, moving further and further away from reality. Thus, Chekhov uses the myth not so much to show the universality of human characters and situations, but to expose the type of consciousness of the hero, who thinks in mythologems, stereotypes, clichés. Chekhov debunks the idol of his time, created by men, the vamp woman, femme fatale. The dominant woman is not dramatized by the writer, but portrayed ironically. Chekhov's goal is not to denounce women's vices that are revealed to a man, not to moralize on the "women's issue", but to debunk the scholastic dogmas that the hero lives by. Unlike the author of The Kreutzer Sonata, Chekhov talks about the relationship of lovers with operetta ease and destroys the melodrama.
Turning to the story "The Lady with the Dog", we consider how Chekhov uses the chronotope of the holiday romance, compromised by popular literature, to reduce the melodrama of high love relationships.
Article by N.K. Mikhailovsky "Darwinism and Offenbach's operettas", paradoxically connecting two seemingly unrelated phenomena of scientific and cultural life, reflects the essence of the mindset of the era of the collapse of the idealistic worldview. Mikhailovsky proves in his article that Offenbach is not only the author of frivolous music for frivolous plots reflecting the spirit of his time, but also an accuser, an innovator, equal in strength of the revolutionary spirit to Voltaire, a satirist-enlightener who destroyed old social and moral dogmas. What is the closeness of Offenbach and Darwin? Darwin is the overthrower of old ideas in science, Offenbach in art. Lawrence Senelik is right that Chekhov was close to Offenbach's anti-idealism 34 . The story "The Lady with the Dog" is not associated with a specific operetta, but with bourgeois boulevard culture in the broadest sense, its ideology aimed at entertainment, relaxedness, festivity, enjoyment, disregard for moral taboos. Resorts belong to the same culture, which at the end of the 19th century began to develop in Russia along the lines of European ones. Chekhov conceived the story "The Lady with the Dog" when he lived in Paris and in the resorts of France. In The Lady with the Dog, the action takes place at a resort in Yalta. The resort chronotope as a plot-forming element of the narrative, updated for the first time in Russian literature by Lermontov, 35 partly resembles that described by M.M. Bakhtin provincial chronotope with its stagnation and cyclic household time 36 . However, unlike the provincial chronotope, where monotonous routine dominates, in the resort - time for vacationers is compressed and compressed. Although the events that take place are predictable in advance and, from the point of view of an outside observer, have a monotonous repetitive character, for the characters involved in the events, time develops rapidly. The resort topos is an alien space for vacationers, so all the events that take place are perceived by them as one-time. The atmosphere of the resort chronotope has features of festivity, carnival, adventurism. Holidaymakers, finding themselves in an unusual environment, live in anticipation of adventures, new thrill, passions. Chekhov's story is considered in comparison with the story of V. Mikulich (L.I. Veselitskaya) "Mimochka on the waters", in which the "holiday romance" is presented in all its cynicism as a very ordinary phenomenon. Mikulich sneers at the exhausted model of romantic relationships that fit into the formula "treachery and love" and devalues the tragedy. Resort relations in "The Lady with the Dog" are also depicted by Chekhov without a romantic veil, their essence is naked. The behavioral model of Chekhov's spa guests, like that of V. Mikulich, destroys the archetype of romantic passions of heroes involved in love conflicts that has developed in Russian literature, which develop rapidly in accordance with the regulations of the resort chronotope in an exotic setting. In The Lady with the Dog, the program of resort love relationships is known in advance to all vacationers and is cynically passed on by word of mouth. The behavior of the characters fits into the clichés, only these are different cultural and behavioral clichés. Gurov is an integral part of bourgeois culture. Anna Sergeevna represents an idealistic model of ideas about a woman and her behavior, which by the end of the 19th century had become a stamp that became the property of mass culture. Chekhov equalizes the heroes, not endowing one with a high way of thinking, and the other with vulgarity. The narrator's remark that "love changed them both" shows that both equally had something to change in themselves. The writer refuses the plot stereotype about the hero awakening to a new life, about a life that is better and cleaner than the previous one. Unlike Mimochka on the Waters, where the ending is closed for the development of high relations between the characters, in The Lady with the Dog, from the low boulevard genre, new type stories without end. With his finale, Chekhov removes the idealistic idea of love, which promises a wonderful life. Destroying illusory notions of love, Chekhov confronts his heroes with problems and shows that they are soberly aware of this. Chekhov's innovation lies in this anti-idealistic ending. By showing adultery in his story, Chekhov happily avoided extremes. He is far from considering adultery as a woman's protest against the "dark kingdom." He also avoided, like Tolstoy, demonizing women who cheat on their husbands. He does not have an open condemnation of adultery as such, starting with the story "Agafya", up to his last works. In The Lady with the Dog, tabloid culture is the context that performs a destructive function in relation to the idealistic worldview, which had exhausted itself by the end of the 19th century. Chekhov, unlike his predecessors and contemporaries, does not push together, but balances the high and the low, and therefore the conflict in his works is smoothed out, does not reach the tension of tragedy. The reaction to the story of Tolstoy, who saw the influence of Nietzsche's ideas in the work, is indicative.
So, Chekhov's heroes live in idealistic chimeras, building projects for educating women, floating in an illusory world of dreams, thinking in stereotypes. The writer distances himself from his characters and deconstructs ideologemes that had become obsolete by the end of the 19th century, turning them into schemes and clichés. We can say that Chekhov, like Offenbach, whose role Mikhailovsky not accidentally compared with the role of Voltaire, referring to lofty images, ruthlessly reduced them and killed them with irony, debunked the ideals that have exhausted themselves in society, which have turned into dogmas.
Having considered Chekhov in the context of the idealistic paradigm of the 19th century, we tried to show that he destroyed the previous canon of relations between the writer and the reader. The idea, which goes back to Schiller's concept, that a work of art should elevate the reader above reality, lead him to the ideal, is experiencing a crisis at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, and Chekhov was precisely the writer in whose work this intention of art found its inconsistency. The rejection of the old system of values and, moreover, the debunking of ideals that have exhausted themselves - this is exactly what is new in Chekhov's work that separated him from his predecessors and contemporaries. That is why, in our opinion, Chekhov should not be considered a writer who completed realism. In the axiological system of modernism, disbelief, disappointment and denial are evaluated not so much as negative manifestations of the spirit, but as necessary stages on the path to ascent. In the last, unfinished work, The Will to Power, Nietzsche writes about nihilism and decadence as phenomena that are “necessary and inherent” in every people, in every era for ascent and movement. Chekhov's work formed a new ethical and aesthetic paradigm, dialogic in relation to the former, idealistic one. The paradox of the reception of Chekhov's work lies in the fact that both his contemporaries and the subsequent generation of readers tried to squeeze the works of the innovator into idealistic formulas, which eventually turned into dogmas, and use them to measure his artistic potential, into the very dogmas that the reformer of prose and drama categorically rejected. The figure of Chekhov, standing at the intersection of epochs, is lonely. This disposition once again confirms the idea that literary process- this is not an evolutionary progressive movement, and Chekhov approaches us when consciousness is freed from ready-made truths taken for granted.
IN Conclusion the main results of the study are formulated.
The main content of the dissertation is reflected in the following publications:
Monographic study
Odessa M.M. Chekhov and the problem of the ideal / M.M. Odessa. – M.: RGGU, 2010.
Compilation and editing
Russia and the USA: Forms of Literary Dialogue / Ed. MM. Odessa and Irene Masing-Delic. – M.: RGGU, 2000. 205 p.
At the turn of the century. Russian-Scandinavian literary dialogue / Comp. MM. Odessa. Ed. MM. Odessa, T.A. Chesnokova. – M.: RGGU, 2001. 336 p.
Among the greats. Literary meetings / Comp., enter. article and comment. MM. Odessa. – M.: RGGU, 2001. 445 p.
Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov. Collection of articles / Comp., ed., entry. note by M.M. Odessa. – M.: RGGU, 2007. 402 p.
Yu. Fridshtein. Three in one century, not counting the theater // Modern Dramaturgy. 2009. No. 1, January - March. pp. 257 - 258.
Articles published in publications recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission
Odessa M.M. Nikolai Uspensky and his "seditious" book / M. Odesskaya // Questions of Literature. 1994. No. 5. S. 304 - 317.
Odessa M.M. The gun and the lyre (A hunting story in Russian literature of the 19th century) / M. Odessa // Questions of Literature. 1998. No. 3. P.239 - 252.
Odessa M.M. Did Chekhov have any ideals? / MM. Odessa // Bulletin of the Russian State University for the Humanities. Series “Journalism. Literary criticism". 2008. No. 11. P.219 - 227.
Odessa M.M. Tolstoy's treatise "What is art?" in the context of the collapse of idealistic aesthetics / M. M. Odesskaya // Philological sciences. 2009. No. 2. S. 20 - 29.
Odessa M.M. Where does the thread of Ariadne lead? /MM. Odessa // Bulletin of the Russian State University for the Humanities. Series “Philological Sciences. Literary criticism and folklore. 2010. No. 2. P. 118 - 126.
12. Odessa M.M. The ideal of beauty and love in the works of I.A. Goncharova / M.M. Odessa // Philological Sciences. 2010. №2. pp. 49 - 60.
Odessa M.M.“Everything must be beautiful in a person”: Chekhov and the Marxist
Odessa M. Chekhov's Tatyana Repina: From Melodrama to Mystery Play /
15. Odessa M. Leo Tolstoy's Treatise What Is Art? In the Context of the Disintegration
of Idealistic Aesthetics / M. Odesskaya // Social Sciences. 2009. #4. P. 47-55.
Articles in other publications
16. Odessa M.M. Indiscreet guesses about "Indiscreet guesses" by I.L. Leontiev-
Shcheglova / M.M. Odessa // Chekhoviana: Chekhov and his entourage. – M.: Nauka, 1996. WITH.
17. Odessa M.M. N. Hawthorne, A. Chekhov, F. Sologub. The archetype of the garden / M. Odessa //
Young researchers of Chekhov: Proceedings of the III Intern. conf. 1998. M.: Moscow State University,
1998. S. 260 -- 266
18. Odessa M.M."Fly the ship, carry me to the distant limits": The sea in poetics
A.S. Pushkin and A.P. Chekhov / M.M. Odessa // Chekhoviana: Chekhov and Pushkin. – M.:
Nauka, 1998, pp. 102 – 106
19. Odessa M.M. Mythologization of reality by the heroes of A. Chekhov and N. Sadur
/M. Odessa // Russian language, literature and culture at the turn of the century. IX
International Congress MAPRYAL. Abstracts of reports and communications. Bratislava,
1999. T. 1. S. 237.
20. Odessa M.M. E.N. Opochinin / M.M. Odessa // Russian writers 1880 - 1917.
Bibliographic dictionary. - M .: Russian Encyclopedia, 1999. T. 4. S. 441 -
Odessa M.M., Bokova V.M.. ON THE. Osnovskiy. / Odessa M.M., Bokova V.M.//
Odessa M.M. Tatyana Repina A.P. Chekhov: the problem of the genre / M. Odesskaya
Odessa M.M."Notes of a hunter" I.S. Turgenev: the problem of the genre / M. Odesskaya // Literaria Humanitas VII. Aleksandr Sergeevic Puskin v evropskych kulturnich souvislostech. - Brno: Mosarikova univerzita, 2000. C. 195 - 205.
Odessa M.M. Henry Thoreau and Anton Chekhov: forest and steppe / M. Odesskaya // Russia and the USA: forms of literary dialogue. - M.: RGGU, 2000. S. 122 - 131.
Odessa M.M. Introductory article. Classics and "ordinary talents". Comments / M. Odessa // Among the great. literary meetings. – M.: RGGU. 2001. S. 5 - 16. 401 -- 417
Odessa M.M. Anton Chekhov and Ulla Hansson: fear and love / M. Odesskaya // At the turn of the century. Russian-Scandinavian literary dialogue. - M.: RGGU, 2001. S.214 - 227
Odessa M. A. P. Chekhov’s Three Sisters: Symbolic Numerals /M. Odessa // AATSEEL. 2001. P. 148 - 149.
Odessa M.M."Three sisters": symbolic and mythological subtext / M.M. Odessa // Chekhoviana. "Three Sisters" - 100 years. – M.: Nauka, 2002. S. 150 –158.
Odessa M.M."Tatyana Repina" by Chekhov: from melodrama to mystery / M.M. Odessa // Drama and theater. - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2002, pp. 81 – 93
Odessa M.M. Holy fools and jesters in the works of A.P. Chekhov / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov: Baikal Encounters. Sat. scientific tr. - Irkutsk: RIO Irkut. un-ta, 2003. S.56 - 63.
Odessa M.M. Chekhov and modern Russian theatrical remakes / M.M. Odessa // Century after Chekhov. 1904 - 2004. International scientific. conf. Abstracts of reports. – M.: MGU, 2004. S. 140 –141.
Odessa M.M. Ibsen and Chekhov: myth, fairy tale, reality / M. Odesskaya // Drittes Internationales Čechov – Symposium in Badenweiler. – Badenweiler, 14-18. abstracts. October 2004. P. 44–45.
Odessa M.M. Shakespearean images in The Cherry Orchard / M.M. Odessa // Chekhovina. "The sound of a broken string": to the 100th anniversary of the play "The Cherry Orchard". – M.: Nauka, 2005. S. 494 – 505.
Odessa M. Hedda Gabler: Life in Time / M/ Odesskaya // Acta Ibseniana. Ibsen and Russian Culture. Ibsen Conference in St. Petersburg 2003. 1–4 October / Edited by Knut Brynhildsvoll. – Oslo: Center for Ibsen Studies. University of Oslo, 2005. P. 85 – 96.
Odessa M.M. The book about Sakhalin is Chekhov's tribute to medicine / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov in the historical and cultural space of the Asia-Pacific region. Mat. International Scientific and Practical Conf. 21 – 30 Sept. 2005. - Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk: Ed. "Lukomorye", 2006. S.59-64.
Odessa M.M. Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov in the light of Max Nordau's concept of degeneration / M. Odesskaya // Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov. Sat. articles dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the death of Chekhov. - M .: RGGU, 2007. S. 211-226.
Odessa M. Let Them Go Crazy: Madness in the Works of Chekhov / Margarita Odesskaya // Madness and the Mad in Russian Culture /Edited by A. Brintlinger and I. Vinitsky. – Toronto; Buffalo; London: University of Toronto Press, 2007. P.192-207.
Odessa M.M. Father as an off-stage character in the dramaturgy of Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov / M. Odesskaya // Henrik Ibsen's work in the world cultural context. Mat. International conf. - St. Petersburg: Pushkin House, 2007. S. 144-156.
Odessa M. Ibsen and Chekhov: Myth, Fairytale and Plot Structure / Margarita Odesskaya //Studi Nordici. 2007.X1V. - Pisa-Roma, 2007. P.11-17.
Odessa M.M. Walden hermit and steppe wanderer: philosophy of nature / M.M. Odessa // Taganrog Bulletin. "Steppe" A.P. Chekhov: 120 years. Mat. International Scientific and Practical Conf. - Taganrog: Taganrog State. lit. and Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve, 2008. S. 78-86
/ MM. Odessa // Chekhov readings in Yalta. Chekhov's world: sound, smell, color. Sat. scientific tr./ house-museum A.P. Chekhov in Yalta. - Simferopol: Share, 2008. Issue. 12. S. 155-164.
42. Odessa M.M. Chekhov and Edgar Allan Poe: themes, motives, images / M. Odesskaya //
Canadian American Slavic Studies. Current Issues in Chekhov Scholarship. – California,
2008 Vol. 42. Nos. 1-2. P.119-146.
43 .Odessa M.M. Jesters, holy fools and crazy in the works of Chekhov / M.M. Odessa // A.M. Panchenko and Russian culture. - St. Petersburg: Pushkin House, 2008. S. 266 -277.
44. Odessa M.M. The myth of Ariadne and "Ariadne" by Chekhov / M.M. Odessa //
Chekhov readings in Yalta. Chekhov's world: myth, fashion, ritual. Sat. scientific tr./ House-Museum
A.P. Chekhov in Yalta. - Simferopol: Share, 2009. Issue. 13. S. 167-178.
45. Odessa M.M. Gogol and Chekhov: sacred and profane / M.M. Odessa // Dialogue with
Chekhov. Sat. articles dedicated to the 70th anniversary of V.B. Kataev. – M.: MGU, 2009. S.
46. Odessa M. M. Father and fatherlessness in the dramaturgy of Chekhov, Vampilov and
Petrushevskaya / M. Odessa // Modern dramaturgy. 2009. No. 1. pp. 180-183.
47. Odessa M.M. Chekhov and Gogol: the ideal of female beauty / M.M. Odessa //
Chekhov readings in Yalta. Chekhov and Gogol: On the 200th anniversary of the birth of N.V.
Gogol. Sat. scientific Tr. / House-Museum of A.P. Chekhov in Yalta. - Simferopol: Share, 2009.
Issue. 14. S. 37 - 47.
Odessa M.M. Chekhov and the Void: The Vector of Construction and Deconstruction /
49.Odessa M.M. Resort chronotope in "The Lady with the Dog" / M.M. Odessa //
Taganrog Bulletin. The origins of A.P. Chekhov: biography and poetics. Mat.
International Scientific and Practical Conf. - Taganrog: Taganrog State. lit. And
Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve, 2010, pp. 60–73.
Odessa M.M. Chekhov in post-Soviet culture // Flexible model of foreign language
51.Odessa M.M. Chekhov and the controversy about the art of his time // The image of Chekhov and Chekhov's Russia in the modern world: To the 150th anniversary of the birth of A.P. Chekhov. Sat. articles - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Petropolis", 2010. S. 48 - 57.
52.Odessa M.M."Tatyana Repina" / M.M. Odessa //A.P. Chekhov. Encyclopedia.- M.: Enlightenment, 2011. S. 235 - 237.
53. Odessa M.M. Leontiev / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov. Encyclopedia. – M.:
Enlightenment, 2011.S. 437–439.
Odessa M.M. Ibsen / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov. Encyclopedia. – M.:
55. Odessa M.M. Strindberg / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov. Encyclopedia. M.: Education, 2011. S. 521 - 522.
56. Odessa M.M. Toro / M.M. Odessa // A.P. Chekhov. Encyclopedia. - M .: Education, 2011. S. 522 - 523.
57. Odessa M.M. The stories "Student" and "Rothschild's Violin" in the context of the controversy about truth and beauty / M.M. Odessa // Creativity A.P. Chekhov: text, context, intertext. To the 150th anniversary of the birth of the writer. Sat. materials of the International scientific conference. - Rostov-on-Don: NMC "Logos", 2011. S. 231 - 237.
Odessa M.M. Tolstoy and Chekhov: ideals and meeting with "nothing" / M.M. Odessa //
Reviews and messages
59. Odessa M.M. V. Linkov. Skepticism and faith of Chekhov / M. Odesskaya // Chekhov Bulletin. 1998. No. 2. S. 11-12.
60. Odessa M.M. Michael C Finke. Metapoesis. The Russian Tradition from Pushkin to Chekhov. Durham and London. Duke University Press, 1995. 221 pp / M. Odessa / / Chekhov Bulletin. 1999. No. 4. S. 40 - 42.
61.Odessa M. M. Tatiana Repina. Two Translated Texts by Aleksei Suvorin and Anton Chekhov. Translated and Edited by John Racin. Mc. Farland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London. 1999, 272pp./ M. Odessa // Chekhov Bulletin. 1999. No. 5. S. 44 - 49.
62. Odessa M.M. Tampere. Chekhov section at the international congress / M. Odesskaya // Chekhov Bulletin. 2000. No. 7. S. 76 - 77.
63. Odessa M.M. Two "Seagulls", "Three Sisters and Uncle Vanya" / M.M. Odessa // Chekhov Bulletin. 2001. No. 9. P. 93 - 94.
64. Odessa M. News Of The Profession. Chekhov Conferences in Russia / M. Odesskaya // North American Chekhov Society Bulletin. Winter, 2001-02. Vol. X, NO. 1.PP. 8 - 10.
65. Odessa M.M. Third international conference in Irkutsk / M. Odesskaya // Chekhov Bulletin. 2002. No. 11. S. 93 - 95.
Love in marital relationships. Typologies of love.
Optimistic and pessimistic models of love.
Optimistic model of love - according to Maslow - self-actualization of people - high satisfaction sexual life over the years does not decrease, but increases. Partners are interested in each other, more and more over the years. The partners knew each other very well as they are. No idealization.
The pessimistic model of love - according to L. Kasler - love, as a feature of an immature personality.
3 reasons to love someone else:
- the need to confirm one's attitudes by another person - as a validation tool (immature)
- only love can satisfy sexual desire and not feel guilty
- love is a conformal reaction to the norms of society.
Feelings of gratitude for the lover, hatred potentially for the one on whom we are dependent - these are manifestations of an unstable marriage.
Models of marital love.
R. Sternberg is a major modern researcher of intellectual activity.
Intimacy - the depth of interpersonal relationships, trust in communication
Passion - mutual attraction of people to each other
Commitment Decision - Loyalty Decision Decision
The dynamics of emotional relationships in a married couple.
There are some processes that go on throughout life:
Adaptation (primary, secondary)
Primary marital adjustment- problem solving, development communication tools, distribution of duties. The transformation of falling in love into love is one of the aspects of primary adaptation.
Secondary marital adaptation- deep, good knowledge of the partner, convergence of personal factors. Highly developed ability to predict the behavior of a partner, synchronicity. Married couples who have lived together for more than 10 years have a portrait resemblance.
Negative aspects: fading of passion in the relationship of spouses: a feeling of disappointment, boredom, routine. Loss of interest in others as individuals.
Changes in the relationship of spouses are cyclically repeated.
V. Zatsepin - 5 stages:
- deep passionate love
- some cooling of relations with a partner, although the appearance of a partner is still encouraging.
- continued cooling of relations
- the presence of a partner causes irritation
- the negative attitude takes over completely.
T. Kemper is one of the few who tried to interpret the feeling of love through any schemes. Human feelings in general with great difficulty lend themselves to any formalization with subsequent "objective" interpretation. Kemper, on the other hand, tried, within the framework of the socially interactive theory of emotions he was developing, to explicitly set the selection of variants of love using "verifiable" factors from the point of view of the theory.
T. Kemper's model is based on two independent factors that are present in any relationship (not only interpersonal, but also those whose subjects are whole social systems e.g. states).
These according to Kemper are:
power, i.e. the ability to force a partner to do what you want, and status - the desire of a partner to meet the requirements of the subject. The desired result in the second case is thus achieved not by force, but due to the positive attitude of the partner.
Based on these two factors, T. Kemper identifies seven types of love relationships in a couple:
1. romantic love, in which both members of the couple have both status and, since each of them can "punish" the other, depriving him of manifestations of his love, power in relation to the partner;
2. brotherly love, based on a mutually high status and characterized by low power - the absence of the possibility of coercion;
3. charismatic love, in which one partner has both status and power, the other only status. An example of such relations in a number of cases can be relations in a pair of teacher - student;
4. "treason", - one partner has both power and status, the other - only power. An example of such a relationship, which gave its name to this type, can be a situation of adultery, when for a partner who has entered into a new relationship, the spouse retains power, but no longer causes a desire to meet him halfway, i.e. loses status;
5. falling in love - one of the partners has both power and status, the other does not use either one or the other. An illustration of such a relationship can be one-sided, or "unrequited" love;
6. "worship" - one partner has status without power, the other has neither status nor power. This situation arises when there is no real interaction between the members of the couple, for example, when falling in love with a literary hero or an actor who is only familiar from films;
7. love between a parent and a small child. One partner here has a high status, but low power (child), the other (parent) has a low status, since love for him has not yet been formed, but a high level of power.
In his study, L. Ya. Gozman identifies stages in the development of emotional relationships. Let's describe them.
Stage 1: the emergence and development of sympathy. Initially, such properties of the object act as significant: external data, socio-demographic characteristics, behavioral patterns; further, in the process of developing relationships and communication, as they are recognized, the socio-psychological characteristics of a person become significant.
the attraction is influenced by the dignity of a person, too high a level of positive qualities reduces the attraction, such a person is perceived as inaccessible and unattainable. His constant "correctness" is depressing. Increases the attraction of a smile, friendly manners. Attraction depends on self-disclosure, partners' trust in each other, the luck of the other person, the similarity of attitudes.
At subsequent stages, personal properties begin to play an important role in the development of attraction. To date, the prevailing point of view is the complementarity of personal properties.
spatial proximity, frequency of contacts, duration and intensity of interaction corresponding to expectations, cooperation (but not turning into rivalry), positive reinforcements as factors, contribute to the emergence and strengthening of sympathy.
The attraction is directed from sympathy to love. Feelings that accompany love are stronger than with sympathy: euphoria, depression, a tendency to fantasize, sleep disturbances, general arousal, difficulty concentrating.
The concept of "love" is one of the few words that express an almost absolute abstraction (along with "truth", "god", etc.).
In the concept of "love" people put different meanings.
In ancient Greek, the following terms were used to define the various manifestations and forms of love:
Eros - spontaneous, passionate, irrational love-obsession, striving for complete physical possession; Philia - love-friendship, conditional social connections and personal choice, rational and mind-controlled; storge - calm, reliable love-tenderness, especially family. And, finally, agape - selfless, sacrificial love, it is associated with complete self-giving, the dissolution of the lover in caring for the beloved.
An important source of the formation of the image of love in a person is the experience gained in the parental home, the influence of the behavior of the father and mother, since the image of love is not limited to ideas about how to behave during sexual intercourse, but is largely determined by the acquired way of communication in life together with other people. Attempts to build theoretical models of love are distinguished by a claim to greater globality. And yet such cases are known. The differences between the models of love are based on the evaluation parameter: optimism-pessimism. The pessimistic model postulates the weakness and imperfection of man, while the optimistic model postulates the constructive power of love.
The pessimistic model was proposed by L. Kasler.
He identifies three reasons that make a person fall in love:
1) the need for recognition;
2) satisfaction of sexual needs;
3) conformist reaction (so accepted).
According to Kasler, love is an alloy of a set of emotions, among which the fear of losing the source of satisfaction of one's needs plays a leading role. Being in love, constructed by the constant fear of losing him, makes a person unfree, dependent and interferes with personal development. positive emotional condition he connects the lover with the gratitude of a person for the satisfaction of his needs. Therefore, L. Kasler concludes, free man does not feel love.
The optimistic model of love was proposed by A. Maslow. According to this model, love is characterized by the removal of anxiety, a sense of complete security and psychological comfort, satisfaction with the psychological and sexual side of relationships, which grows over the years, the interest of loving people in each other constantly increases. During their life together, the partners get to know each other well, the real assessment of the spouse is combined with his complete acceptance. Maslow associates the constructive power of love with the connection of the sexual sphere with the emotional, which contributes to the fidelity of partners and the maintenance of equal relations.
Psychologists turned to the phenomenon of love, conducted research, the subject of which were different aspects of this phenomenon. One of the fundamental questions is the question of the source of love. It is reliably known that love can be “different”, includes many aspects (physiological, psychological, social, spiritual, etc.) and personality states (sex, care, tenderness, respect, admiration, childbearing, etc.) and unequivocally it is difficult to speak of a comprehensive source of love.
Love as a reflection of personal inadequacy. So, some authors (Kesler, Freud, Martinson, Reik) have tried to describe the need for love as a sign of inadequacy. Z. Freud and V., Reik considered "love" as a reflected perception of one's own unachieved ideals in a partner, Peel drew a parallel between drug use and love (dependence on a sense of satisfaction contributes to an underestimation of one's self-esteem). According to Kesler, "love" is a sign of a need in a healthy person, and according to Freud and Reik, "love" is not a pathology, but characterizes neurotic personality. Thus, the dependence of clients of psychotherapists on their partners shows that "inadequate personalities are more dependent on love in order to survive psychologically." So, the concept of inadequacy is used in different ways by different authors. Let us give as an example the development of the theory of love by a domestic author, the so-called "syntax of love".
Theory of love A. Afanasiev. "Love" is a special state of euphoria, caused by the illusion of finding "happiness" in a pair with a subject endowed sufficiently with those mental properties that are lacking. The author substantiated his idea of the internal architecture of a person, consisting of four mental modules or functions: Emotions (“soul”), Logic (“mind”), Physics (“body”) and Will (“spirit”). This set of functions is inherent in all people, but it forms a hierarchy in the personality, which determines the difference between people. "As nature puts these four bricks on top of each other, such will be the inner world of the individual." Something in the human psyche is strong, sufficient, life-giving, and something is weak, insufficient, flawed, requiring supplementation and development. People converge fruitfully to varying degrees, striving for the harmony of the psyche and life in accordance with the hierarchies of their functions. It is a significant lack in the manifestation of any function (will, emotion, body, mind) that is the cause of love for another person. There are three types of love (or combinations of a weak function with the functions of the opposite side, which can cause euphoria):
Eros is love based on the principle of opposites. The most common, unfortunately, forte another does not add strength to the weak side. Love - envy - hate.
Fipia - love on the principle of identity. Kindred souls, recognizing each other, eventually find themselves in front of their reflection in the mirror. Static, boring.
Agape is an evolutionary love that moves partners away from the opposite of identity. A fruitful, real "formula of love" leads to the harmonization of the personalities of those who love.
There are pure and many transitional types of relationships (24 options) with different development prospects.
Love is a normal feeling of an adequate person. However, for most psychologists, “love” is a completely normal feeling of an adequate personality.
Love in marriage and family relationships.
The concept of "love" is one of the few words that express an almost absolute abstraction (along with "truth", "god", etc.).
The ancient Indian treatise “Peach Branch” described the emergence of love: “Three sources have a human attraction: soul, mind and body. Attractions of souls breed friendship. The inclinations of the mind breed respect. The desires of the body give rise to desire. The union of the three drives produces love."
Fromm distinguishes 5 types of love: brotherly, maternal, erotic, love for oneself and love for God. He highlights in love: care, responsibility, respect for each other, knowledge of the characteristics of the other, an indispensable feeling of pleasure and joy for love.
R. Hatiss highlights in love respect, positive feelings for a partner, erotic feelings, the need for positive feelings of a partner, a sense of intimacy and intimacy. He also includes here the feeling of hostility, which stems from too short a distance between partners and emotional closeness.
According to Z. Rubin, love contains affection, care and intimacy.
Western scholars have proposed the following classification of love:
1. Eros: passionate love with a strong and obligatory touch of physicality and a desire for physical contact.
2. Ludus: hedonistic love is a game with rather superficial feelings, allowing for betrayal, partners' lack of obligations to each other.
3. Storge: calm and reliable love-friendship without special emotional experiences, but guaranteeing fidelity and care.
4. Pragma: relationships built on a sober calculation, rational and constantly controlled by reason.
5. Mania: irrational love-obsession, which is characterized by suspicion, jealousy and uncertainty about the fidelity of the object of love.
6. Agape: selfless love-self-giving, complete dissolution in the object of love, total service to him.
In this regard, some details of the gender-role behavior of men and women are curious (L. Ya. Gozman, 1987). So, it turned out that the "desire to fall in love" in men is a stronger reason for starting a relationship than in women.
It was also found that men in general are characterized by a higher level of romanticism than women, they fall in love easier and faster. But at the same time, during the period of already established love relationships, a woman is capable of greater self-disclosure and evaluates her partner higher than he does her.
T. Kemper (1979) proposed to distinguish between love relationships in a couple, taking into account two factors: power, that is, the ability to make a partner do what you want, and status - the desire of the partner himself to meet your requirements. Thus, he identified seven types of love relationships:
1. Romantic love: partners have both power and status.
2. Brotherly love: partners have a high status and low power, that is, there is more likely a mutual willingness to meet each other halfway than a desire to force, force the other to do it.
3. Charismatic love: one partner has both power and status, the other only status. Example: student-teacher relationship.
4. Cheating: one partner has both power and status, the other only power (the cheating spouse retains power over the second, but loses status, that is, the desire to meet his requirements).
5. Falling in love: one of the partners has both power and status, the other has neither one nor the other (the so-called "unrequited" love).
6. Worship: One partner has status but no power, the other has no status or power.
7. parental love: one has high status and low power (child), the other has low status and high power (parent).
This typology, despite some schematicity inherent in almost all psychological typologies, can be used as the basis for the study and analysis of emotional relationships in a couple.
Modern concepts that explain the mechanisms of the emergence of love take physiological attraction as the starting point. Romantic love is interpreted as a strong excitement, which can be the result of anything, but often coexists with danger, death, fear. Romantic love is fickle and unstable, as 1) the causes of excitement in everyday situations quickly disappear; 2) associated with the constant experience of strong (both positive and negative) emotions, from which they quickly get tired; 3) is focused on a stable idealization of a partner, in which a real person becomes a phantom. A statistically normal outcome of family relationships built on romantic love is disintegration.
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- Introduction
- Conclusion
Introduction
The theme of feelings is eternal in art, music, literature. In all eras and times, many different creative works have been devoted to this feeling, which have become inimitable masterpieces. This topic remains very relevant today. Especially relevant in literary works is the theme of love. After all, love is the purest and most beautiful feeling that has been sung by writers since ancient times.
The lyrical side of the works is the first thing that attracts the attention of most readers. It is the theme of love that inspires, inspires and evokes a number of emotions, which are sometimes very contradictory. All the great poets and writers, regardless of the style of writing, themes, time of life, devoted a lot of their works to the ladies of their hearts. They invested their emotions and experiences, their observations and past experiences. Lyrical works are always full of tenderness and beauty, vivid epithets and fantastic metaphors. The heroes of the works perform feats for the sake of their loved ones, take risks, fight, dream. And sometimes, watching such characters, you are imbued with the same experiences and feelings of literary heroes.
1. The theme of love in the works of foreign writers
In the Middle Ages, the chivalric romance was popular in foreign literature. Knightly romance - as one of the main genres medieval literature, originates in a feudal environment in the era of the emergence and development of chivalry, for the first time in France in the middle of the 12th century. The works of this genre are filled with elements of the heroic epic, boundless courage, nobility and courage of the main characters. Often, knights went to exploits not for the sake of their kind or vassal duty, but in the name of their own glory and glorification of the lady of their heart. Fantastic adventure motifs, an abundance of exotic descriptions make the chivalric romance partly similar to a fairy tale, the literature of the East and the pre-Christian mythology of Northern and Central Europe. The emergence and development of the chivalric romance was greatly influenced by the work of ancient writers, in particular Ovid, as well as the rethought legends of the ancient Celts and Germans.
Consider the features this genre on the example of the work of the French medievalist philologist, writer Joseph Bedier "The Romance of Tristan and Isolde". Note that in this work there are many elements alien to traditional chivalric novels. For example, the mutual feelings of Tristan and Isolde are devoid of courtesy. In the chivalric novels of that era, the knight went to great deeds for the sake of love for beautiful lady, which for him was a living bodily embodiment of the Madonna. Therefore, the knight and the same Lady had to love each other platonically, and her husband (usually the king) is aware of this love. Tristan and Iseult, his beloved, are sinners in the light of Christian morality, not only medieval. They only care about one thing - to keep their relationship secret from others and to prolong their criminal passion by any means. Such is the role of Tristan's heroic leap, his constant "pretense", Isolde's ambiguous oath at the "God's court", her cruelty towards Brangien, whom Isolde wants to destroy because she knows too much, etc. Tristan and Isolde are defeated by the strongest desire to be together, they deny both earthly and divine laws, moreover, they doom not only their own honor, but also the honor of King Mark to desecration. But Uncle Tristana is one of the noblest heroes who humanly forgives what he should punish like a king. He loves his wife and nephew, he knows about their deceit, but this does not show his weakness at all, but the greatness of his image. One of the most poetic scenes of the novel is the episode in the forest of Morois, where King Mark found Tristan and Isolde sleeping, and seeing a naked sword between them, he readily forgives them (in the Celtic sagas, a naked sword separated the bodies of the heroes before they became lovers , but in the novel it is a hoax).
To some extent, it is possible to justify the heroes, to prove that they are not at all guilty of their sudden outbreak of passion, they fell in love not at all because, say, Isolde's "blondness" attracted him, and Tristan's "valor" attracted her, but because the heroes drank a love potion by mistake, intended for a completely different occasion.Thus, love passion is depicted in the novel as the result of a dark force that penetrates into the bright world of the social world order and threatens to destroy it to the ground.In this clash of two irreconcilable principles, the possibility of a tragic conflict has already been laid down, making the "Romance of Tristan and Isolde" a fundamentally pre-courtly work in the sense that courtly love can be arbitrarily dramatic, but it is always joy. The love of Tristan and Isolde, on the contrary, brings them nothing but suffering.
"They languished apart, but they suffered even more" when they were together. “Isolde has become a queen and lives in grief,” writes the French scholar Bedier, who retold the novel in prose in the nineteenth century, “Isolde has a passionate, tender love and Tristan is with her, whenever she wants, day and night.” Even while wandering in the forest of Morua, where the lovers were happier than in the luxurious castle of Tintagele, their happiness was poisoned by heavy thoughts.
Many other writers have been able to capture their thoughts about love in their works. For example, William Shakespeare gave the world a number of his works that inspire exploits and risk in the name of love. His "Sonnets" are filled with tenderness, luxurious epithets and metaphors. Harmony is rightly called the unifying feature of the artistic methods of Shakespeare's poetry. The impression of harmony comes from all the poetic creations of Shakespeare.
The expressive means of Shakespeare's poetry are unusually varied. They inherited a lot from the entire European and English poetic tradition, but introduced a lot of absolutely new things. Shakespeare also shows his originality in the variety of new images he introduced into poetry, and in the novelty of the interpretation of traditional plots. He used poetic symbols common to Renaissance poetry in his works. Already by that time there was a significant number of familiar poetic devices. Shakespeare compares youth with spring or a sunny dawn, beauty with the charm of flowers, the withering of a person with autumn, old age with winter. The description of the beauty of women deserves special attention. "Marble whiteness", "lily tenderness", etc. these words contain boundless admiration for female beauty, they are filled with endless love and passion.
Undoubtedly, the play "Romeo and Juliet" can be called the best embodiment of love in the work. Love triumphs in the play. The meeting of Romeo and Juliet transforms them both. They live for each other: "Romeo: My heaven is where Juliet is." Not languid sadness, but a living passion inspires Romeo: "All day long, some kind of spirit carries me up above the earth in joyful dreams." Love transformed their inner world, influenced their relationships with people. Romeo and Juliet's feelings are severely tested. Despite the hatred between their families, they choose boundless love, merging in a single impulse, but individuality has been preserved in each of them. The tragic death only adds to the special mood of the play. This work is an example of a great feeling, despite the early age of the main characters.
2. The theme of love in the works of Russian poets and writers
This topic is reflected in the literature of Russian writers and poets of all times. For more than 100 years, people have been turning to the poetry of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, finding in it a reflection of their feelings, emotions and experiences. The name of this great poet is associated with a tirade of poems about love and friendship, with the concept of honor and Motherland, images of Onegin and Tatyana, Masha and Grinev arise. Even the most strict reader will be able to discover something close in his works, because they are very multifaceted. Pushkin was a man passionately responding to all living things, a great poet, creator of the Russian word, a man of high and noble qualities. In the variety of lyrical themes that permeate Pushkin's poems, the theme of love is given such a significant place that the poet could be called a singer of this great noble feeling. In all world literature you will not find more shining example special predilection for this side of human relations. Obviously, the origins of this feeling lie in the very nature of the poet, sympathetic, able to reveal in each person the best properties of his soul. In 1818, at one of the parties, the poet met the 19-year-old Anna Petrovna Kern. Pushkin admired her radiant beauty and youth. Years later Pushkin met again with Kern, as charming as before. Pushkin presented her with a recently printed chapter of Eugene Onegin, and between the pages he inserted poems written especially for her, in honor of her beauty and youth. Poems dedicated to Anna Petrovna "I remember a wonderful moment" is a famous hymn to a high and bright feeling. This is one of the pinnacles of Pushkin's lyrics. Poems will captivate not only with the purity and passion of the feelings embodied in them, but also with harmony. Love for the poet is a source of life and joy, the poem "I loved you" is a masterpiece of Russian poetry. More than twenty romances have been written on his poems. And let time pass, the name of Pushkin will always live in our memory and awaken the best feelings in us.
With the name of Lermontov opens new era Russian literature. Lermontov's ideals are boundless; he longs not for a simple improvement of life, but for the acquisition of complete bliss, a change in the imperfection of human nature, an absolute resolution of all the contradictions of life. Immortal life- the poet does not agree to less. However, love in the works of Lermontov bears a tragic imprint. This was influenced by his only, unrequited love for a friend of his youth - Varenka Lopukhina. He considers love impossible and surrounds himself with a halo of martyrdom, placing himself outside the world and life. Lermontov is sad about the lost happiness "My soul must live in earthly captivity, Not for long. Maybe I won't see more, Your gaze, your sweet gaze, so tender for others."
Lermontov emphasizes his remoteness from everything worldly "Whatever it is earthly, but I will not become a slave." Lermontov understands love as something eternal, the poet does not find solace in routine, fleeting passions, and if he sometimes gets carried away and steps aside, then his lines are not the fruit of a sick fantasy, but just a momentary weakness. "At the feet of others, I did not forget the gaze of your eyes. Loving others, I only suffered from the Love of former days."
Human, earthly love seems to be an obstacle for the poet on his way to higher ideals. In the poem "I will not humiliate myself before you," he writes that inspiration is dearer to him than unnecessary quick passions that can be thrown human soul into the abyss. Love in Lermontov's lyrics is fatal. He writes "I was saved by inspiration from petty fuss, but there is no salvation from my soul even in happiness itself." In Lermontov's poems, love is a high, poetic, bright feeling, but always unshared or lost. In the poem "Valerik" the love part, which later became a romance, conveys a bitter feeling of losing connection with her beloved. "It's crazy to wait for love in absentia? In our age, all feelings are only for a period, but I remember you," the poet writes. The theme of betrayal of a beloved, unworthy of a great feeling or not standing the test of time, becomes traditional in Lermontov's literary creations related to his personal experience.
The discord between dream and reality permeates this wonderful feeling; love does not bring joy to Lermontov, he receives only suffering and sorrow: "I am sad because I love you." The poet is worried about the meaning of life. He is sad about the transience of life and wants to have time to do as much as possible in the short time allotted to him on earth. In his poetic reflections, life is hateful to him, but death is terrible.
Considering the theme of love in the works of Russian writers, one cannot help but appreciate Bunin's contribution to the poetry of this subject. The theme of love occupies almost the main place in Bunin's work. In this topic, the writer has the opportunity to correlate what happens in the soul of a person with the phenomena of external life, with the requirements of a society that is based on the relationship of purchase and sale and in which wild and dark instincts sometimes reign. Bunin was one of the first in Russian literature to devote his works not only to the spiritual, but also to the bodily side of love, touching with extraordinary tact the most intimate, intimate aspects of human relationships. Bunin was the first to dare to say that bodily passion does not necessarily follow a spiritual impulse, which happens in life and vice versa (as happened with the heroes of the story "Sunstroke"). And no matter what plot moves the writer chooses, love in his works is always a great joy and a great disappointment, a deep and insoluble mystery, it is both spring and autumn in a person’s life.
IN different periods Of his work, Bunin speaks of love with varying degrees of frankness. In his early works, the characters are open, young and natural. In such works as "In August", "In Autumn", "Dawn All Night", all events are extremely simple, brief and significant. The feelings of the characters are ambivalent, colored with halftones. And although Bunin talks about people who are alien to us in appearance, life, relationships, we immediately recognize and realize in a new way our own premonitions of happiness, expectations of deep spiritual changes. The rapprochement of Bunin's heroes rarely achieves harmony; as soon as it appears, it most often disappears. But the thirst for love burns in their souls. The sad parting with his beloved is completed by dreamy dreams ("In August"): "Through my tears I looked into the distance, and somewhere I dreamed of the southern sultry cities, a blue steppe evening and the image of some woman who merged with the girl I loved ... ". The date is remembered because it testifies to a touch of a genuine feeling: "Whether she was better than the others whom I loved, I do not know, but that night she was incomparable" ("Autumn"). And in the story "Dawn all night" Bunin tells about a premonition of love, about the tenderness that a young girl is ready to give to her future lover. At the same time, youth tends not only to get carried away, but also quickly disappointed. Bunin's works show us this painful gap between dreams and reality for many. "After a night in the garden, full of nightingale whistling and spring trembling, young Tata suddenly hears in her sleep how her fiancé shoots jackdaws, and understands that she does not love this rude and mundane man at all" .
Most of Bunin's early stories tell about the desire for beauty and purity - this remains the main spiritual impulse of his characters. In the 1920s, Bunin wrote about love, as if through the prism of past memories, peering into the departed Russia and those people who are no longer there. This is how we perceive the story "Mitina's Love" (1924). In this story, the writer consistently shows the spiritual development of the hero, leading him from love to collapse. In the story, feelings and life are closely intertwined. Mitya's love for Katya, his hopes, jealousy, vague forebodings seem to be covered with a special sadness. Katya, dreaming of an artistic career, spun in the fake life of the capital and cheated on Mitya. His torment, from which he could not save the connection with another woman - the beautiful but down to earth Alenka, led Mitya to commit suicide. Mitin's insecurity, openness, unpreparedness to face harsh reality, inability to suffer make us feel more acutely the inevitability and inadmissibility of what happened.
In a number of Bunin's stories about love, a love triangle is described: husband - wife - lover ("Ida", "Caucasus", "The most beautiful sun"). In these stories, an atmosphere of inviolability of the established order reigns. Marriage is an insurmountable barrier to achieving happiness. And often what is given to one is ruthlessly taken away from another. In the story "Caucasus", a woman leaves with her lover, knowing for sure that from the moment the train leaves, hours of despair begin for her husband, that he will not stand it and rush after her. He is really looking for her, and not having found her, he guesses about the betrayal and shoots himself. Already here the motif of love as a "sunstroke" appears, which has become a special, ringing note of the "Dark Alleys" cycle.
Memories of youth and the Motherland bring together the cycle of stories "Dark Alleys" with the prose of the 20-30s. These stories are told in the past tense. The author seems to be trying to penetrate into the depths of the subconscious world of his characters. In most stories, the author describes bodily pleasures, beautiful and poetic, born in genuine passion. Even if the first sensual impulse seems frivolous, as in the story "Sunstroke", it still leads to tenderness and self-forgetfulness, and then to true love. This is exactly what happens with the heroes of the stories "Business cards", "Dark alleys", "Late hour", "Tanya", "Rusya", "In a familiar street". The writer writes about ordinary lonely people and their lives. That is why the past, filled with early, strong feelings, seems to be truly golden times, merges with the sounds, smells, colors of nature. As if nature itself leads to the spiritual and physical rapprochement of people who love each other. And nature itself leads them to inevitable separation, and sometimes to death.
The skill of describing everyday details, as well as the sensual description of love, is inherent in all the stories of the cycle, but the story written in 1944 " Clean Monday"represents not just a story about the great mystery of love and the mysterious female soul, but some cryptogram. Too much in the psychological line of the story and in its landscape and everyday details seems like a ciphered revelation. Accuracy and abundance of details are not just signs of the times, not just nostalgia for forever lost Moscow, but the opposition of East and West in the soul and appearance of the heroine, leaving love and life for a monastery.
3. The theme of love in the literary works of the XX century
The theme of love continues to be relevant in the 20th century, in the era of global catastrophes, a political crisis, when humanity is making attempts to re-form its attitude towards universal values. Writers of the 20th century often depict love as the last remaining moral category of the then destroyed world. In the novels of the writers of the "lost generation" (Remarque and Hemingway belong to them), these feelings are the necessary stimulus for which the hero tries to survive and live on. The "Lost Generation" is the generation of people who survived the First World War and remained spiritually devastated.
These people renounce any ideological dogmas, search for the meaning of life in simple human relationships. The feeling of a comrade's shoulder, which almost merged with the instinct of self-preservation, guides the mentally lonely heroes of Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front through the war. It also determines the relationship that arises between the characters of the novel "Three Comrades".
Hemingway's character in A Farewell to Arms renounced military service, from what is usually called the moral obligation of a person, renounced for the sake of a relationship with his beloved, and his position seems very convincing to the reader. A man of the 20th century is constantly faced with the possibility of the end of the world, with the expectation of his own death or the death of a loved one. Katherine, the heroine of A Farewell to Arms, dies, as does Pat in Remarque's Three Comrades. The hero loses a sense of being needed, a sense of the meaning of life. At the end of both works, the hero looks at the dead body, which has already ceased to be the body of the beloved woman. The novel is filled with the author's subconscious thoughts about the mystery of the origin of love, about its spiritual basis. One of the main features of the literature of the 20th century is its inextricable connection with the phenomena public life. The author's reflections on the existence of such concepts as love and friendship appear against the backdrop of the socio-political problems of that time and, in essence, are inseparable from reflections on the fate of mankind in the 20th century.
In the work of Francoise Sagan, the theme of friendship and love usually remains within the framework of a person's private life. The writer often depicts the life of the Parisian bohemia; most of her heroes belong to her.F. Sagan wrote her first novel in 1953, and it was then perceived as a complete moral failure. In the artistic world of Sagan, there is no place for a strong and truly strong human attraction: this feeling must die as soon as it is born. It is replaced by another - a feeling of disappointment and sadness.
love theme literature writer
Conclusion
Love is a high, pure, wonderful feeling that people have sung since ancient times, in all languages of the world. Love has been written about before, is being written about now, and will be written about in the future. No matter how different love is, this feeling is still beautiful. Therefore, they write so much about love, compose poems, love is sung in songs. Creators beautiful works can be listed indefinitely, since each of us, whether he is a writer or a simple person, has experienced this feeling at least once in his life. Without love there will be no life on earth. And when reading works, we come across something sublime, which helps us to consider the world from the spiritual side. After all, with each hero we experience his love together.
Sometimes it seems that everything has been said about love in world literature. But love has a thousand shades, and each of its manifestations has its own holiness, its own sadness, its own fracture and its own fragrance.
List of sources used
1. Anikst A.A. The work of Shakespeare. M.: Allegory, 2009 - 350 p.
2. Bunin, I.A. Collected works in 4 volumes. T.4 / I.A. Bunin. - M.: Pravda, 1988. - 558 p.
3. Volkov, A.V. Prose of Ivan Bunin / A.V. Volkov. - M.: Moskov. worker, 2008. - 548 p.
4. Civil Z.T. "From Shakespeare to Shaw"; English writers of the XVI-XX centuries. Moscow, Prosveshchenie, 2011
5. Nikulin L.V. Kuprin // Nikulin L.V. Chekhov. Bunin. Kuprin: Literary portraits. - M.: 1999 - S.265 - 325.
6. Petrovsky M. Dictionary of literary terms. In 2 volumes. M.: Allegory, 2010
7. Smirnov A.A. "Shakespeare". Leningrad, Art, 2006
8. Teff N.A. Nostalgia: Stories; Memories. - L .: Fiction, 2011. - P. 267 - 446.
9. Shugaev V.M. Experiences of a reading person / V.M. Shugaev. - M.: Sovremennik, 2010. - 319 p.
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