The problem of man and society in Russian literature of the 19th century. The development of Russian literature and culture in the second half of the XIX

19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of the great classics, who influenced not only Russian, but also world culture. The main ideas inherent in the literature of this time are the growth of the human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.

Difference from the previous century

Giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was distinguished by a very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang of the dignity of man, tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century more daring and bold works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.

Reasons for flourishing

In the process of working on homework or a report on the topic “General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century”, a student may have a natural question: what caused these changes, why was literature able to reach such a high level of development? The reason for this was social events - this is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleonic troops, and the abolition of serfdom, and public reprisals against oppositionists. All this led to the fact that completely new stylistic devices began to be applied in literature. Working on a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the "Golden Age".

Orientation of literature

Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. The significance of these questions she deduces far beyond her own historical era. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, gaining fame as an influential force in the development of education.

Epoch phenomenon

If it is necessary to give a brief general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism”. This means that literature has become a way of conveying ideas and opinions in political disputes. It has become a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value orientations and ideals.

It is impossible to say unequivocally whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too "preaching", "mentoring". Indeed, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which the then writers, poets, and critics lived. AI Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: "For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet."

The role of literature in society

Almost the same thing was said by N. G. Chernyshevsky: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Pay attention to the word "yet" here. Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still recognized that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, "for now", in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.

Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in the most difficult social conditions, despite the persecution (it is worth remembering the same N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works they contributed to the awakening in a person of a bright, spiritual beginning, integrity, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Considering all this, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country, first of all, is the role of a teacher.”

Common and different in the representatives of the "Golden Age"

When preparing materials on the topic “General characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century”, it is worth saying that all representatives of the “Golden Age” were different, their world was unique and peculiar. Writers of that time are difficult to bring under any one general image. After all, every true artist (this word means a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates his own world, guided by personal principles. For example, the world of Leo Tolstoy is not similar to the world of Dostoevsky. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, representatives of the "Golden Age" also have a common feature - this is responsibility to the reader, talent, a high understanding of the role that literature plays in human life.

General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table

The "Golden Age" is the time of writers of completely different literary movements. To begin with, we will consider them in a summary table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.

Genre	When and where did it originate	Types of works	Representatives	Main features
Classicism	17th century, France	Ode, tragedy, epic	G. R. Derzhavin (“Anacreotic Songs”), Khersakov (“Bakharian”, “Poet”).	The national-historical theme prevails. The ode genre is predominantly developed. Has a satirical twist
Sentimentalism	In the second half XVIII V. in Western Europe and Russia, most fully formed in England	Tale, novel, elegy, memoir, travel	N. M. Karamzin (“ Poor Lisa”), early works of V. A. Zhukovsky (“Slavyanka”, “Sea”, “Evening”)	Subjectivity in assessing the events of the world. Feelings come first. Nature plays an important role. Protest against corruption high society. The cult of spiritual purity and morality. Rich is claimed inner world lower social strata.
Romanticism	Late 18th - first half of the 19th century, Europe, America	short story, poem, tale, novel	A. S. Pushkin (“Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Boris Godunov”, “Little Tragedies”), M. Yu. Lermontov (“Mtsyri”, “Demon”), F. I. Tyutchev (“Insomnia”, “In the Village”, “Spring”), K. N. Batyushkov.	The subjective prevails over the objective. A look at reality through the "prism of the heart". The tendency to reflect the unconscious and intuitive in a person. Gravity for fantasy, the conventions of all norms. A penchant for the unusual and the sublime, a mixture of the high and the low, the comic and the tragic. The personality in the works of romanticism aspires to absolute freedom, moral perfection, to the ideal in an imperfect world.
Realism	XIX c., France, England.	Story, novel, poem	Late A. S. Pushkin (“Dubrovsky”, “Tales of Belkin”), N. V. Gogol (“ Dead Souls”), I. A. Goncharov, A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”), F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”), L. N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace ”, “Anna Karenina”), N. G. Chernyshevsky (“What to do?”), I. S. Turgenev (“Asya”, “Rudin”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“Poshekhonsky stories”, “ Lord Gogolevs"), N. A. Nekrasov (“Who should live well in Rus'?”).	In the center literary work- objective reality. Realists seek to identify causal relationships in events. The principle of the typical is used: typical characters, circumstances, specific time are described. Usually realists turn to the problems of the present epoch. The ideal is reality itself. Increased attention to the social side of life.

Russian literature of this era was a reflection of the leap that was made in the previous century. The "Golden Age" began mainly with the flowering of two currents - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has been gaining more and more power. Such is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student to navigate the main trends and representatives of the "Golden Age". In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, contradictions are growing between the oppressed classes and common people. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat calms down. And the end of an era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.

Classicism

This direction is worth mentioning, giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the "Golden Age", primarily refers to its beginning. This term is translated from Latin means "exemplary" and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This direction arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic topics, strict observance of the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a certain pattern. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. It is they who illuminate the most important problems for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, "high" genres were opposed to "low" ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.

Sentimentalism

Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. In him big role plays the voice of the narrator. This direction, as indicated in the table, is characterized by increased attention to the experiences of a person, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature, Karamzin's "Poor Lisa" occupies a special place among the works of sentimentalism.

Noteworthy are the words of the writer, which can characterize this direction: "And peasant women know how to love." Many have argued that an ordinary person, a commoner and a peasant, in moral attitude in many ways superior to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.

Romanticism

This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been disputes about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition of this trend. The representatives themselves this direction emphasized the originality of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in every country romanticism acquires its own features. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism stood up for social ideals, but they did it in different ways.

Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of full resolution all contradictions. Many romantics in their works are dominated by the mood of fighting evil, protesting against the injustice reigning in the world. Romantics also tend to turn to the mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, a serious influence is given to the inner world of a person.

Realism

The purpose of this direction is a true description surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the soil of a tense political situation. Writers are starting to social problems to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is life, customs, events from life ordinary people from the lower classes.

During the transition period, the manifestation of the heroic in the "ordinary" for writers who wished to preserve the traditions of Chernyshevsky, not to lose the "rut", had rather stable forms. The organization of free schools and especially Sunday schools for adults, the organization of labor associations and partnerships, propaganda activities among workers and artisans, “going to the people” as a paramedic or a rural teacher - these are the few options for socially useful activities that were offered by literature at that time. .

Of course, some time will pass and some of these "small things" will no longer be ideal. public life. Historically promising will be the participation of "new people" in organizational and propaganda work with factory and factory workers (G. Uspensky, "Ruin"; I. Omulevsky, "Step by Step"; K. Stanyukovich, "Without Exodus"; V. Bervi- Flerovsky, "On Life and Death", etc.).

The undoubted merit of democratic fiction was the exposure of the political betrayal of the bourgeois-liberal figures, the logical consequence of which was the onset of the era of "white terror" (N. Blagoveshchensky, "Before Dawn"; I. Kushchevsky, "Nikolai Negorev, or the Prosperous Russian", etc.) . At the turn of the 60-70s. some writers were alarmed by the adventurist actions of the Bakuninists - "flashers", not backed up by painstaking rough work among the peasantry (N. Bazhin, "Calling").

In the conditions of the most difficult literary and social situation that developed at the turn of the 60-70s, the work of N. G. Chernyshevsky exiled to Siberia on the novel "Prologue" was timely and relevant.

The new work of the revolutionary writer took into account the change in the socio-political situation in the country and abroad, the danger of Bakunin's secret calls to excite unprepared peasant uprisings and focused attention younger generation fighters on the political aspects of the struggle against tsarism.

The plot-compositional structure of the novel consists of two parts, of which the second part, pushed "out of its frame, from the first part", "is directly facing the present" of the 70s. (from the observations of A. V. Karyakina on the composition of the "Prologue").

However, it is not only Levitsky's Diary that orients the reader to the search for "chance for the future". In general, the whole novel, retrospectively comprehending the experience of the collapse of hopes for social change in Russia during the first revolutionary situation, was a program for the coming decade.

This circumstance is due to genre structure"Prologue", and new conflict situations in its plot, and different from "What to do?" typological solutions to the image of a revolutionary, providing for other accents in the artistic interpretation of "special" and "ordinary".

Different creative ideas the writer, due to the historical circumstances of the activities of Russian revolutionaries, led to the creation of two novels that are not similar in terms of genre. In the conditions of the maturation of the revolutionary situation in the early 60s.

Chernyshevsky turns to the genre of the socio-philosophical novel (“What is to be done?”), And during the period of the collapse of the revolutionary situation, when there were no longer opportunities for the implementation of the social revolution, when, despite this, the course towards an immediate peasant revolution continued to be pursued among the populist youth ("rebellion"), he deliberately rearranges the ideological and artistic accents, creating a novel of a slightly different genre - a historical-political novel.

Using the historical experience of ten years ago, the writer this time - in the novel "Prologue" - brings to the fore the events of the political struggle, refusing to artistic development socio-economic conflicts and the idea of ​​an immediate social revolution.

This explains the fundamental differences between the underground revolutionary Rakhmetov, who is preparing a revolution under illegal conditions (in which meetings and ideological clashes with "enlightened men" are excluded), and public figure Volgin, leading an open political struggle against high-ranking opponents under legal conditions.

All this ultimately determined the ideological and artistic originality of Rakhmetov and Volgin, the outward dissimilarity between the “exclusivity” of a “special person” and the “ordinary” family journalist endowed with “simple human qualities”.

Path political activity Volgin, which turned out to be the most suitable at a time when there is no open revolutionary action populace, however, cannot be canonized as the only and obligatory in all the rapidly changing circumstances of the liberation struggle.

Chernyshevsky does not lose sight of Rakhmetov's variant in the Prologue either. He foresees the arrival of a new revolutionary situation, when the need for professional underground revolutionaries like Rakhmetov will again be acute.

A correct understanding of Volgin's views on the prospects of a social movement sheds additional light on the somewhat mysterious figure of Levitsky, a Rakhmetov-type revolutionary who apparently failed in his attempt to lead a spontaneous peasant revolt (which proved Volgin's far-sightedness in their disputes). Volgin's relationship with Levitsky is developing in the direction of implementing the revolutionary program of the first of them, which provides for the unity of political and social actions.

Volgin's skepticism about the prospects for a revolutionary movement in Russia is temporary and local. It goes back directly only to the next, and not the final, stage of the political struggle on the peasant question.

The nobility, the liberals have so far managed to push back the threat peasant revolution for some time, until the people are convinced that they are being deceived. Hence, political struggle, aimed at exposing the predatory essence of the tsarist reform, is of paramount importance. The new "disappointment of society" is one of the "chances of the future."

When determining objective historical patterns new revolutionary upsurge in Russia, Volgin, in addition to taking into account the political situation in Russian society, also has in mind revolutionary events in Western Europe. Strengthening revolutionary ties with Europe is the second "chance for the future."

This program of interconnection between advanced Russia and the Western European revolutionary movement, put forward at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, introduces a qualitatively new moment in the evolution of the image of a revolutionary from Rakhmetov to Volgin. It was historically justified by the rise of the proletarian movement in Western Europe (in particular, in France), by the activities of the First International, and by the interest in all these events that Chernyshevsky's students from the Russian Section of the International showed.

Considering it in the light of the new tasks that faced the “new people” at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, we will see in this evolution not an expression of the crisis of Chernyshevsky’s revolutionary democratic ideology, but, on the contrary, the desire of the author of the Prologue to raise it to a new level, to outline the prospect of social upsurge in the country.

Chernyshevsky's orientation toward strengthening and expanding the political forms of struggle against tsarism, toward strengthening ties with the revolutionary West, was precisely the creative development of the revolutionary-democratic ideology of the sixties at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s.

The evolution of the image of a revolutionary from Rakhmetov to Volgin is relative. It does not mean a rejection of the ideological and artistic achievements of the novel What Is to Be Done?. Ideally, a revolutionary of a new type should combine the Rakhmetov and Volgin principles.

However, in Russian revolutionary movement social and political actions were carried out for a long time in isolation from each other, and this did not give vital prerequisites for creating such a synthetic image. And yet the trends artistic expression heroic, "exceptional" in "ordinary" (with a different combination of "Rakhmetov" and "Volgin" typological varieties) in democratic literature 70-80s were very noticeable.

The search for the hero of the new time in its heyday revolutionary populism took place in difficult social and literary conditions. After the failures caused by "going to the people" (1873-1875), advanced democratic fiction had to overcome two trends that were far from the artistic traditions of Chernyshevsky: on the one hand, the idealization of communal village practices and the elevation of people with "golden hearts" to the rank of real heroes, simplistic romantic dreamers; on the other hand, the revival of the Turgenev type of intellectual with Rudin's eloquence and Hamlet's duality.

Democratic writers in their works reflected the collapse of illusions inspired by the Lavrists and Bakuninists (P. Zasodimsky, “The Chronicle of the Village of Smurina”; A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky, “An Episode from the Life of Neither Peasant nor Crow”; V. Bervi-Flerovsky, “On life and death" - the third part of the book). The dialectical comprehension of "historical illusions" allowed the new heroes to free themselves from confusion and despondency, the states characteristic of people of the "neither peahen nor crow" type, to look for effective ways of struggle.

In this process of overcoming the crisis, inspired by the failure of "going to the people", it turned out to be saving artistic method Chernyshevsky. The ideal of a person of the Rakhmetov type inspires Vera Neladova to struggle and deprivation (V. L., “According to different roads”, 1880) and the “bride” of the revolutionary Zhenichka (A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky, “Aunt”, 1880). The heroes of A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky, Iv. Ivanovich (Svedentsov), S. Smirnova, O. Shapir, K. Stanyukovich, P. Zasodimsky.

Rakhmetov continued to be a literary and artistic reference point for many writers of the "seventies" period of the second revolutionary situation. And this was in line with the revolutionary practice of the "Land Volunteers" and "People's Volunteers", among whom stood out the organizers of the Rakhmetov warehouse - Dmitry Lizogub, Alexander Mikhailov, Stepan Khalturin, Sofia Perovskaya, Andrey Zhelyabov - artistically depicted by S. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky in " Underground Russia"It is in the Rakhmetov version.

"In a novel that claims to contemporary meaning, the positive hero must be heroic, or rather, he will certainly be so, ”says the revolutionary Alexei Ivanovich in A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky.

However, in the implementation heroic character democratic (populist) fiction at the turn of the 70-80s. strengthened "the feeling of sacrifice, doom and loneliness."30 The heroic was combined with the tragic, the romantic beginning intensified in the transfer of the unequal duel of lone heroes with the autocracy ("Andrey Kozhukhov" by S. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky).

The aesthetic reappraisal of the concepts of the heroic is socially and psychologically substantiated by the revolutionary practice of the "People's Volunteers", cut off from the mass popular movement.

History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983

CENTURIES
Development of the Russian
literature and
culture
in the second
half of XIX

At the beginning of the 19th century, the process was completed
education of the Russian national
literature and creation of Russian
literary language.
played an important role in this process
A. S. Pushkin, he was the ancestor
new direction in Russian literature
- realistic.
Further development of literature
led to a critical
realism.
Its origin is associated with the name
N.V. Gogol, and the heyday falls on
second half of the 19th century.

60s XIX years century entered
Russian history as a period
the greatest rise
social thought and
public struggle.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean
war, the rise of peasant revolts
forced the emperor
Alexander II to recognize that "it is better
release from above than wait,
while overthrown from below.
The abolition of serfdom and
the rise of capitalism
major socio-economic developments
considered time.

The social upsurge of the post-reform period was the source of the incredible flourishing of Russian science and art.

THE PUBLIC RISE OF THE POST-REFORM
OF THE PERIOD WAS THE SOURCE OF INCREDIBLE
THE FLOWERING OF RUSSIAN SCIENCE AND ART.
In the chronological table of this period you will see
talent constellation:
artists ‒ G. G. Myasoedov, I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge,
V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. E.
Repin, V. A. Serov and others;
composers ‒ M. A. Balakirev, A. P. Borodin, Ts. A.
Cui, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov and
others;
writers and poets - A. N. Ostrovsky, I. S. Turgenev,
N. A. Nekrasov, A. A. Fet, F. I. Tyutchev, L. N. Tolstoy,
F. M. Dostoevsky, N. S. Leskov, A. V. Druzhinin,
P. V. Annenkov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others.

"New people" in Russian literature

"NEW PEOPLE" IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Describing the 1960s and 1970s
XIX century, L. N. Tolstoy
emphasized:
"All
This
overturned
And
only
fits in."
IN
post-reform era
arena of social struggle
came out
"new
People"
‒
raznochinskaya
intelligentsia,
nihilists.

according to the dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov:

ACCORDING TO THE DICTIONARY OF S.I. OZHOGOV:
nihilist - free thinker
man, intellectual raznochintsy,
sharp
negative
pertaining to
To
bourgeois noble
traditions
And
customs, to serfdom
ideology."
Raznochinets - "in the XIX century in
Russia:
intellectual,
Not
belonging to the nobility
from other classes
estates".

So the "new people" were
from poor families,
were well educated and
were engaged
intellectual
labor, but the main thing is that they
related,
‒
rejection
existing
V
Russia
order.
They believed in the power of reason
looked at the natural sciences
as the foundation of all knowledge.
This type of hero is depicted in
novel by N. G. Chernyshevsky “What
do?" and in the novel by I.S.
Turgenev "Fathers and Sons".

At the first acquaintance with the main character of the novel "Fathers and Sons" Bazarov, I. S. Turgenev draws a portrait of a commoner.

AT THE FIRST ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE MAIN CHARACTER OF THE NOVEL
"FATHERS AND CHILDREN" BY BAZAROV I. S. TURGENEV DRAWS
PORTRAIT OF A RAZNOCHIN.
Bazarov is a typical representative
"new
of people",
which
before
minimum simplified behavior,
everyday
life,
care
behind
appearance.
By
words
contemporary
commoner
"...must
was
dress as simply as possible
simple environment, most
dirty
work
do
By
opportunities for yourself - one
word,
break
co
everyone
ruinous
habits
vaccinated
rich
bureaucracy and nobility."

In the second half of the 19th century they were replaced
various
professional
associations of raznochintsy; meetings at
editors of magazines and newspapers; theater
figures; various student circles
interests, as well as circles of specialists in
certain area of ​​science.
In circles, groups, at parties, they argued about
future fate of Russia, demanded
respect for the individual, her human
dignity, upholding freedom of speech.

10.

A new hero of literature since the 1860s.
became an acting hero.
Unlike "superfluous people" (such as Onegin and
Pechorin: smart, talented, but not found
place in life) heroes of N. G. Chernyshevsky,
I. S. Turgeneva, I. A. Goncharova (Stolz)
hardworking, they care not so much about personal,
how many public problems.
However, these heroes did not find answers to
issues of concern to contemporaries. Russian
literature has not created an image of a person
active,
energetic
And
busy
specific useful work.

11. Problematics of works of art

PROBLEMS OF ARTISTIC
WORKS
In the same years there was a sharp struggle between:
Slavophiles
who did not consider it possible
imitate the West, as Russia
has its own history, culture, ideals
Westerners
(supporters use
European experience)
And
V. G. Belinsky,
A. I. Herzen,
I. S. Turgenev
A. I. Khomyakov,
K. S. Aksakov
A. N. Ostrovsky,
F. I. Tyutchev,
N. S. Leskov

12.

Democratization
literature
led
To
exacerbation of the peasant theme that arose in
works by N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev
and etc.
The literature of the 1860s also raised women's
topic, and the position of a Russian woman
considered in different aspects - in the family, in
public life.
Writers were interested in life and peasant women
(N. A. Nekrasov), and merchants (A. N. Ostrovsky, N. S.
Leskov), and noblewomen (L. N. Tolstoy, I. S.
Turgenev), etc.

13.

Russian literature of the 1860s
trying hard to find an answer
the question "what to do?".
The first on him in the eponymous
novel tried to answer N. G.
Chernyshevsky.
Work
received
subtitle "From stories about
new people", in which the author
stated its main theme.
Chernyshevsky highlighted the main
Problems
public,
political
And
moral
life of Russia.

14. Roman in Russian literature

NOVEL IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Novel - literary
genre
epic
works
big
forms,
V
which
narration
focused on destiny
individuals in their
relation
To
to the world around
formation, development
characters
And
self-awareness.

15.

If speak about genre specifics literature
second half of the 19th century, then were presented and
monumental novels:
social,
psychological,
philosophical (I. S. Turgeneva, I. A. Goncharova, L. N.
Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky),
story,
stories (by N. S. Leskov and A. P. Chekhov),
dramatic works (A. N. Ostrovsky and
A.P. Chekhov).
However, first of all, this is the heyday
"Russian novel".
In the 1860s-1970s, the best examples were created
of this genre.

16.

I. S. Turgenev - "Rudin" (1855), "Nest of Nobility"
(1859), "On the Eve" (1860), "Fathers and Sons" (1862),
"Smoke" (1867), "New" (1877);
I. A. Goncharov - "Oblomov" (1859), "Cliff" (1869);
F. M. Dostoevsky - "Humiliated and Insulted"
(1861), "Crime and Punishment" (1866), "The Idiot"
(1869), "Demons" (1871), "Teenager" (1875), "Brothers
Karamazovs" (1880);
N. S. Leskov - “Nowhere” (1864), “Cathedrals” (1872);
L. N. Tolstoy - "War and Peace" (1869), "Anna
Karenina" (1877).

17.

The novels of I. S. Turgenev reflect the spiritual
mood of the time. He is one of the first
portrayed a new hero - a commoner democrat, a nihilist, and in his works
the ideal of the active fighter emerged.
Turgenev created a whole gallery of images
Russian women - advanced views,
deeply moral high impulses,
ready for the challenge.

18.

Discovery in world art culture
became
image
L.
N.
Tolstoy
psychological portrait in motion and
contradictions.
Tolstoy through psychological analysis
showed for the first time in Russian literature that
Personality is changeable, just like life is changeable.
Human
smart, educated capable
spill the beans; kind may
to show cruelty, heartlessness.
The work of L. N. Tolstoy is an attempt to catch
"fluid substance" of the spiritual life of the characters.

19.

Huge contribution to the development of new
Russian novel was introduced by F. M.
Dostoevsky.
studying
character
"private"
a man who lives in a narrow
world,
Fedor
Mikhailovich
depicted what a titanic
struggle
going on
V
soul
person making a choice
between good and evil.
The heroes of Dostoevsky are looking for Truth, for
her insights pay off
suffering.

20. Development of dramaturgy

DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA
The development of Russian dramaturgy in the second half of the 19th century is connected with
first of all with the name of A. N. Ostrovsky.
Continuing the traditions of D.I. Fonvizin, A.S.
Griboyedova, N. V. Gogol, A. N. Ostrovsky
created national dramaturgy, opened
new heroes and new conflicts that
reflect the events of Russian reality
that time.
They wrote comedies (“Not all to the cat
carnival”, “Truth is good, but happiness
better"), psychological dramas("Last
victim",
"Dowry")
social dramas (“Poverty is not a vice”,
"Thunderstorm"), satirical comedies ("Forest",
"Wolves and Sheep"), historical dramas
(“Kozma Zakharyich Minin-Sukhoruk”, “Dream on
Volga"), a fairy tale ("The Snow Maiden").

21.

An invaluable contribution to the development of Russian drama
introduced by A.P. Chekhov ( late XIX‒ the beginning of the 20th century).
Chekhov set himself the main goal of bringing
drama to reality.
There are no villains and righteous people in life, there
the characters of people are smaller, but more complex, and therefore
there is no such clear division.
That is why it is enough to solve the hero
difficult.
It does not manifest itself in actions (just no
major deeds), there is no action as such,
there is no goal towards which the hero is moving, what is he
wants to achieve.
Speech
heroes
practically
Not
individualized.
There are no individuals here, everything is here
smoothed, blurry, as in reality.
Chekhov said that in life everything is simpler outwardly,
but much harder internally

22. Arguments about art

DISPUTES ABOUT ART
In the second half of the 19th century, there was a struggle in Russian literature
Pushkin and Gogol directions.
Writers - Pushkin's heirs demanded independence
literature from the authorities and the people, the creator was represented by God. This
the literary movement of the second half of the 19th century was called
pure art.
The writers of this trend considered for themselves a program
A. S. Pushkin's poem "The Poet and the Crowd", especially
his final lines:
Not for worldly excitement,
Not for self-interest, not for battles,
We are born to inspire
For sweet sounds and prayers.
The ideologists of "pure art" were V.V. Druzhinin, P.V.
Annenkov, V. V. Botkin; poets A. N. Maikov, A. K. Tolstoy, A. A.
Pleshcheev and others.

23.

the opposite
point
vision
expressed by the followers of Gogol.
In the poem "Dead Souls" (the beginning of the first
volumes) N.V. Gogol compared two types
writers: creator of art for art's sake
and a writer-denunciator, attributing himself to
the second type.
His ideas were supported by V. G. Belinsky,
who believed that “taking away from art
the right to serve the public interest
- means not to elevate, but to humiliate him,
because it means to deprive him of himself
living force, i.e. thoughts, make it
subject
some
sybarist
(sybarite - idle, spoiled
luxury
Human)
enjoyment,
a toy of idle sloths ... ".

24. Journalism

JOURNALISM
In the second half of the 19th century in Russia
journalism began to flourish.
Magazines
"Contemporary",
"Bell",
"Russian
word",
"Spark",
"Russian
Bulletin”, “Bulletin of Europe” and others
played a huge role in the development of Russian
literature and art.
"Contemporary"
under
leadership
N. A. Nekrasova became a printed organ
revolutionary democrats.
Political and critical departments in
this
magazine
supervised
N. G. Chernyshevsky, he acted as a critic
and publicist.

25.

In 1856, N. G. Chernyshevsky introduced
editorial
"Contemporary"
N.A. Dobrolyubova.
Articles
Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov made
magazine "Sovremennik" popular in
among the progressive people of Russia.
IN
articles
Dobrolyubova
developed
And
many
theoretical questions of aesthetics and
literary criticism.
In 1866 the magazine was banned
censorship.
Ideas of "Sovremennik" N. A. Nekrasov
continued in the magazine "Domestic
notes "(1868).

26.

Opposition to
these magazines were the magazines "Russian
Bulletin", "Russian Word", etc.
Gain
roles
literature
V
social life led to
is the development of criticism.
Literary criticism of the second half
XIX century was represented by the names
N.
G.
Chernyshevsky,
N.
A.
Dobrolyubova, A. A. Grigorieva, A. V.
Druzhinina, N. N. Strakhova, D. I.
Pisarev, I. A. Antonovich and others and
had a huge impact on the development
literature.

27. Poetry of the second half of the 19th century

POETRY OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
From the contradictions between "Gogol" and
"Pushkin" directions in Russian
literature of the second half of the 19th century
there was a confrontation between two poetic
camps:
"pure art" and civil literature.

28.

Under the conditional definition of "pure art" or
"art for art's sake" can be combined
the work of a number of original Russian poets.
It is believed that at the head of this direction in Russian
poetry were F. I. Tyutchev and A. A. Fet, to the representatives
"pure art" include Ya. P. Polonsky, A. N.
Apukhtin, A. N. Maikov, L. A. Meya, N. F. Shcherbin.
These
poets
united
general
traditional
the idea of ​​poetry, which is higher than ordinary life,
momentary problems, social and political
questions. However, it would be wrong to think that poetry
"pure art" was far from life. Her sphere is
spiritual world of man, the world of feelings, philosophical and
aesthetic searches, the search for answers to eternal questions
being.

29.

Representatives of "pure art" saw themselves in
the role of defenders of genuine creativity,
independent of fashion, momentary ideas and
political passions, claimed that poetry
cannot but possess spiritual beauty and
moral perfection because it
divine in nature, and the poet carries
responsibility to God himself.

30.

Representatives of "pure art" tried
comprehend serious philosophical aspects
being; created wonderful poems
love; contributed to the development of the Russian
lyrics.
Wonderful, highly patriotic lines about
Russia F. I. Tyutchev to this day are
bright characteristic of the Russian original
character:
Russia cannot be understood with the mind,
Do not measure with a common yardstick;
She has a special become -
One can only believe in Russia.

31.

Supporters of the camp of revolutionary democrats
declared themselves resolute opponents so
called "pure art".
Civic poetry in Russian literature II
half of the 19th century is represented primarily
the work of N. A. Nekrasov, as well as V. S. Kurochkin,
D. D. Minaeva, N. P. Ogareva, A. N. Pleshcheeva, A. M.
Zhemchuzhnikov, who were
conscious
spokesmen for contemporary political and
social sentiment.
Just like prose writers, representatives of the "natural
schools", they used material in poetry
modern reality.

32.

In the field of poetry, Nekrasov did the same thing that Gogol did in
prose, - expanded the national specifics
works, brought literature closer to the people, made
Russian peasants as heroes of their poetry.
Democratization of Nekrasov's lyrics
influenced
on
style,
language,
metrorhythmic features of it
poetry.
The poet created varieties of genres:
elegy on social topics,
parodic romance and ode; introduced into
literature
acute social
poetry and lyric
poem, review poem, peasant
epic. In his works often
combines several traditional
genres.

33.

A special place in the controversy between
representatives of "pure art" and
civil
poetry
belongs
A.A. Grigoriev, who believed that
the existence and struggle of these two
directions - a natural process
development of post-Pushkin literature
period.
"The true poets, all the same, they said
whether they: "I'm not a poet - I'm a citizen", or:
“We are born for inspiration, for
sweet sounds and prayers, ”they served and
serve one thing: the ideal, differing only in
forms of expression of their service.

34. Outcome

TOTAL
Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century
all the variety of topics, ideas, directions
became a manifestation of the spirit of the Russian people.
Thus, the development of literature in
the second half of the 19th century went according to different
directions, and put forward a whole galaxy
the greatest Russian poets and writers, whose
names have become world famous. Literature abstractThe theme of the "little man" in Russian literatureXIXcentury. ContentsThe theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. A.S. Pushkin "The Stationmaster". N.V. Gogol "The Overcoat". F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". "Little Man" and time. List of used literature.

The term "little man" is a true long-liver in school and university literary criticism. There is a semantic and emotional stereotype that accompanies this expression.

Forgotten by everyone humiliated people, their life, small joys and big troubles for a long time seemed insignificant, unworthy of attention. Such people and such an attitude towards them gave rise to the era. Cruel times and tsarist injustice forced the "little people" to withdraw into themselves. Suffering, they lived an imperceptible life and also imperceptibly died. But just such people sometimes, by the will of circumstances, obeying the cry of the soul, began to grumble against the mighty of the world this, cry out for justice. Petty officials, stationmasters, "little people" who had gone mad, came out of the shadows against their will.

One of the first writers who discovered the world of "little people" was N.M. Karamzin. The greatest influence on subsequent literature was Karamzin's story “Poor Liza. The author laid the foundation for a huge cycle of works about "little people", took the first step into the previously unknown topic of A.S. Pushkin was the next writer, whose sphere of creative attention began to include the whole vast Russia, its expanses, the life of the villages. For the first time, Russian literature so poignantly and clearly showed the distortion of the personality by a hostile environment. For the first time, it turned out to be possible not only to dramatically portray inconsistent behavior man, but also to condemn the evil and inhuman forces of society - Samson Vyrin judges this society. artistic discovery Pushkin was directed to the future - it made way for Russian literature into the unknown.

This theme reached its greatest apogee in the works of N.V. Gogol. (C) Information published on the website
Gogol opens the world of officials to the reader in his Petersburg Tales.

N.V. Gogol, who revealed in his "Petersburg Tales" and other stories the true side of the life of the capital and the life of officials, vividly and weightily showed the possibilities " natural school"in the transformation and change of a person's view of the world and the fate of" little people ". critical realism Gogol revealed and helped to develop this theme to the writers of the future like no other. Gogol stood for deep and original criticism, which should be "a true representative of the opinions" of his era.

In the Petersburg Notes of 1836, Gogol puts forward the idea of ​​a socially saturated art from a realistic position, which notices the common elements of our society, moving its springs. He gives a remarkably deep definition of realistic art, following romanticism, embracing the old and the new with its effective look. Gogol's realism contains the disclosure of the complexity of life, its movement, the birth of a new one. A realistic view is affirmed in the work of N.V. Gogol in the second half of the 1930s.

"Petersburg Tales", especially "The Overcoat", had great value for all subsequent literature, the assertion in it of the socio-humanistic direction and the natural school. Herzen considered The Overcoat to be a colossal work by N.V. Gogol, and F.M. Dostoevsky said: “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat. Creativity N.V. Gogol greatly enriched Russian literature.

The development of the “little man” theme has its own logic, which we will try to follow in the future. I settled on the following works of Russian classics: “The Stationmaster” by A.S. Pushkin, "Overcoat" N.V. Gogol, "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky.

Petersburg and Moscow, in the work of A.S. Pushkin, opened not only from a luxurious entrance, but also through the narrow doors of poor people's houses. Proof of this was his "Tale of Belkin", in the center of which is provincial Russia. Here and "martyr of the fourteenth class" collegiate registrar, the caretaker of one of the thousands of small postal stations, the poor official Samson Vyrin, and the retired hussar officer Silvio, and the rich nobles, and the impoverished.

Disclosure of social and artistic value"The Stationmaster" laid the foundation for F.M. Dostoevsky, he expressed judgments about the realism of Pushkin's story, about its cognitive value, pointed out the typical image of the poor official Vyrin, the simplicity and clarity of the language of the story, noted the depth of the image in it human hero. tragic fate"martyr of the fourteenth class" after F.M. Dostoevsky has attracted the attention of critics more than once, who noted the humanism and democracy of Pushkin and evaluated The Stationmaster as one of the first, since the 18th century, realistic stories about a poor official.

Pushkin's choice of hero - stationmaster was not random. In the 20s of the 19th century, as is known, many moralistic essays and stories appear in Russian literature, the heroes of which are people of the “lower class”. In addition, the genre of travel is being revived. In the mid-20s, poems, poems, and essays began to appear in magazines more and more often, in which attention was paid not only to descriptions of the region, but also to meetings and conversations with the stationmaster.

In the story, three arrivals of the narrator, separated from one another by several years, organize the course of the narration, and in all three parts, as in the introduction, the narration is conducted by the narrator. But in the second, central part of the story, we hear Vyrin himself. In the words of the narrator: “Let us delve into all this thoroughly, and instead of indignation, our heart will be filled with sincere sympathy,” a generalization is given, it is said about hard labor and the position of the stationmaster, not of any one tract, but of all, at any time of the year, day and night. Excited lines with rhetorical questions ("who did not curse ...", "who in a moment of anger?", etc.), ᴨȇstruggling with the demand to be fair, to enter the position of "a real martyr of the fourteenth grade" let us understand what Pushkin sympathetically says O hard work these people.

The first meeting in 1816 is described by the narrator with obvious sympathy for his father, for his daughter, the beautiful Duna, and for their well-established life. Vyrin - the image of "fresh, good man about fifty, in a long green frock coat with three medals on faded ribbons, ”an old soldier who, probably, walked for about 30 years during military campaigns, he buried his wife in 1812, and only a few years he had to live with his beloved daughter, and a new misfortune crashed down on him. The stationmaster Samson Vyrin lived in poverty, his desires were elementary - with work full of insults and humiliation, he earns a livelihood, does not complain about anything and is pleased with fate. The trouble that breaks into this private world, then - a young hussar who secretly takes away his daughter Dunya to Petersburg. Grief has shaken him, but has not yet broken him. The story about Vyrin's fruitless attempts to fight Minsky, after he begged for a vacation and went to St. Petersburg as a schoolboy, is given just as sparingly as the story about Vyrin's hero, but by other means. Four small, but full of vital truth pictures of Vyrin's arrival draw a typical situation in the conditions of social and class inequality - the position of the powerless, weak and the "right" of the strong, the one in power. The first picture: An old soldier in the role of a petitioner to an indifferent, important official.

Second picture: Father in the role of a petitioner ᴨȇred Minsky.

It seemed that a decisive moment had come in a person's life, when all the accumulated past grievances would raise him to rebellion in the name of holy justice. But “... tears welled up in his eyes, and he only said in a trembling voice: Your honor! ...Make such a divine favor!” Instead of protest, there was a plea, a pitiful request.

Third painting: (two days later). Again he was in front of an important lackey, who forced him out of the middle room with his chest and slammed the door under his nose.

Fourth scene: Again, ᴨȇred Minsky: “Get out!” - And, with a strong hand Grabbing the old man by the collar, he pushed him onto the stairs.

And, finally, two days later, the return from St. Petersburg to his station, it is quite understandable, too, ᴨȇshkom. And Samson Vyrin resigned himself.

The second visit of the narrator - he sees that "grief has turned a kind peasant into a frail old man." And the view of the room that did not escape the attention of the narrator (dilapidation, negligence), and the changed appearance of Vyrin (gray hair, deep wrinkles of a long unshaven face, hunched back), and the surprised exclamation: “It was exactly Samson Vyrin, but how old he is!” - all this indicates that the narrator sympathizes with the old caretaker. In the narration of the narrator himself, we hear echoes of the feelings and thoughts of Vyrin, the praying father (“He shook Dunyushkin’s hand; “I saw my poor Dunya”) and Vyrin, a trusting, helpful and disenfranchised person (“It was a pity for him to part with his kind guest”, “not understood how blindness had come upon him", "decided to come to him", "reported to his high nobility" that "an old soldier"; "thought ... he returned, but he was no longer there", , waved his hand and decided to retreat.”) Pushkin A.S. "Novels and stories", M., art. Literature, 1960 S. - 70

The role of Vyrin himself expresses his grief and sheds light on the role of Dunya in his father’s house (“His house held on; what to clean up, what to cook, “It happened that the master, no matter how angry he was, calms down with her and talks mercifully to me”).

The fate of the "little man" in the center of the author's attention and compassion for him is not only the initial, but also the final element of the author's attitude towards his heroes. It is expressed both in the introduction and in each of the three episodes, of which the last two are in opposition to the first, while each of them three parts of this lyrical-epic story are painted in various emotional tones. The third part is clearly painted in a tone of lyrical sadness - Samson Vyrin finally resigned himself, took to drink and died of grief and longing.

The question of human behavior in the story "The Stationmaster". Set sharply and dramatically. Aspiration, Pushkin shows, humiliates a person, makes life meaningless, eradicates pride, dignity, independence from the soul, turns a person into a voluntary slave, into a victim submissive to the blow of fate.

For the first time, Russian literature so poignantly and clearly showed the distortion of the personality by a hostile environment. For the first time, it was possible not only to dramatize the contradictory behavior of a person, but also to condemn the evil and inhuman forces of society. Samson Vyrin judged this society.

Pushkin's artistic attitude was directed to the future - it made way for the still unknown.

In the story, written on the topic of the stationmaster, popular in the 1920s, it is perfectly explained who the collegiate registrar is, and compassion for him is a decisive element in the author's attitude towards his hero. The story expresses a broad generalization of reality, revealed in an individual case. tragic history ordinary man, "martyr of the fourteenth class" Samson Vyrin.

Pushkin emphasizes: "... caretakers in general are peaceful people, naturally helpful, inclined to coexistence, modest in their claims to honors and not too greedy." In the image of the stationmaster, Pushkin notes not only humility, meekness, as if agreement with the fate of just a small person, but also a desire for well-being, modest joys.

God gives Samson a beautiful daughter, who is also part of the caretaker's small household, moreover, Dunya helps her father avoid all the caretaker's suffering. (C) Information published on the website
Samson Vyrin subtly uses the striking beauty of his daughter to maintain his well-being. The “little man”, being himself “overwhelmed by circumstances”, is far from being indifferent to power over his neighbors.

It is interesting to note the etymology of the Vyrins' surname: "to dig out" means to adapt, and also "vyr" is a whirlpool, a dark and disastrous whirlpool. IN AND. Dahl " Dictionary Russian language”, M., Eksmo-press, 2002, p. - 159.

So, in The Stationmaster, Pushkin shows that being a "little man" is a natural and inevitable lot; Much is revealed to the “little man”, but little is perceived by him; he strives to alleviate earthly fate, but only incurs even greater suffering; striving for the good, does not avoid sin; leaves life deeply depressed and in anticipation of the highest judgment; death itself turns out to be more desirable for him than life.

The fate of the stationmaster is a typical fate common man whose well-being can be destroyed at any moment by the rude intervention of the “powerful ones”, ruling class, Pushkin preceded Gogol, Dostoevsky, Chekhov and their heroes with his story, saying his word about the "little" man.

After reading the stories of N.V. Gogol, we remember for a long time how an unlucky official in a cap of indefinite shape and in a blue fleece overcoat, with an old collar, stopped in front of the window to look through the whole windows of shops, shining with wonderful lights and magnificent gilding. For a long time, with envy, the official intently examined various objects and, having come to his senses, continued on his way with deep anguish and steadfast firmness. Gogol opens the reader to the world of "little people", the world of officials in his "Petersburg Tales".

The central story in this cycle is "The Overcoat". "Petersburg Tales" differ in character from Gogol's previous works. (C) Information published on the website
Before us is bureaucratic Petersburg, Petersburg - the capital - the main and high-society, a huge city - business, commercial and labor, and "universal communication" N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979. S. -3. Petersburg - the brilliant Nevsky Prospekt, on the sidewalk of which everything that lives in Petersburg leaves its traces; “takes out on him the power of strength or the power of weakness” N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979. S. -4.

And before the reader flashes, as in a kaleidoscoᴨȇ, a motley mixture of clothes and faces, in his imagination there is a terrible picture of the restless, intense life of the capital. The bureaucracy of that time helped to write this accurate portrait of the capital.

So obvious were the delays of the bureaucracy, the problem of “higher” and “lower”, that it was impossible not to write about it, “What a fast phantasmagoria takes place on it in one day!” - Gogol exclaims as if with surprise, but still more amazing ability Gogol himself with such depth to reveal the essence of the social contradictions of the life of a huge city in a brief description of only one street - Nevsky Prospekt.

In the story "The Overcoat", Gogol addresses the hated world of officials, and his satire becomes harsh and merciless: "... he has the gift of sarcasm, which sometimes makes you laugh to the point of convulsions, and sometimes awakens contempt bordering on hatred." This short story made a huge impression on the readers. Gogol, following other writers, came to the defense of the "little man" - an intimidated, powerless, miserable official. He expressed the most sincere, warmest and most sincere sympathy for the destitute person in the beautiful lines of the final argument about the fate and death of one of the many victims of heartlessness and arbitrariness.

The victim of such arbitrariness, a typical representative of a petty official in the story, is Akaky Akakievich. Everything in him was ordinary: both his appearance and his inner spiritual humiliation. Gogol truthfully portrayed his hero as a victim of unjust activities. In The Overcoat, the tragic and the comic complement each other. The author sympathizes with his hero, and at the same time sees his mental limitations and laughs at him. For the entire time of his stay in the department, Akaki Akakievich did not advance at all through the ranks. Gogol shows how limited and miserable was the world in which Akaky Akakievich existed, content with squalid housing, dinner, a shabby uniform and an overcoat coming apart from old age. Gogol laughs, but he laughs not just at Akaky Akakievich, he laughs at the whole society.

But Akaky Akakievich had his own "poetry of life", which had the same humiliated character as his whole life. In ᴨȇwriting papers, he “saw some kind of diverse and pleasant world of his own” 11 N.V. gogol "Petersburg stories", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 120

In Akaky Akakievich, the human principle was nevertheless preserved. Those around him did not accept his timidity and humility and mocked him in every possible way, poured papers on his head, and Akaky Akakievich could only say: “Leave me, why are you offending me” 22 N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 119 . The life story of Akaky Akakievich is a new streak in his life. A new overcoat is a symbol of new life. The apogee of Akaky Akakievich's work is his first visit to the department in a new overcoat and attending a party at the head clerk's. The hard work of Akaky Akakievich was crowned with success, he at least somehow proved to people that he had conceit. On this, it seemed, the pinnacle of well-being, disaster befell him. Two robbers take off his overcoat. Despair causes Akaky Akakievich to protest impotently. Seeking a reception from the “most private” and addressing a “significant person”, Akaky Akakievich “once in his life wanted to show his character” 11 N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 136 . Gogol sees the failure of his hero's capabilities, but he gives him the opportunity to resist. But Akaki is powerless in the face of a soulless bureaucratic machine and in the end dies just as imperceptibly as he lived. Gogol does not end the story on this. He shows us the ending: the dead Akaki Akakievich, who was meek and humble during his lifetime, now appears as a ghost.

The famous episode in the play “The Overcoat” is the choice of a name, here it’s not just bad luck with the names in the calendar, but precisely a picture of nonsense (since the name is a person): he could be Mokkiy (ᴨȇrevod: “mockery”), and Sossius (“big man” ), and Khozdazat, and Trifiliy, and Varakhasiy, and repeated the name of his father: “the father was Akaki, so let the son be Akaki (“doing no evil”), this phrase can be read as a sentence of fate: the father was a “little man” , let the son be also a "little man." Actually, life, devoid of meaning and joy, is only dying for the “little man”, and out of modesty he is ready to complete his career immediately, as soon as he is born.

Boshmachkin died: “A creature disappeared and disappeared, protected by no one, dear to no one, not interesting to anyone ...”

But the story of the poor official does not end there. We learn that Akaky Akakievich, who was dying in a fever, in his delirium scolded “His Excellency” so much that the old housewife, who was sitting at the bedside of the patient, became frightened. So, right before death itself, anger against the people who killed him woke up in the soul of the downtrodden Bashmachkin.

Gogol tells us at the end of his story that in the world in which Akaky Akakievich lived, the hero as a person, as a person challenging the whole society, can only live after death. The Overcoat tells about the most ordinary and insignificant person, about the most ordinary events in his life. The story had a great influence on the direction of Russian literature, the theme of the "little man" became one of the most important for many years.

Gogol's "Overcoat" - a grotesque and a gloomy nightmare that breaks through black holes in a vague picture of life 11 Turyanskaya B.I. “Literature in the 9th grade”, M., Russian Word, 2002, p - 34 ... (V.V. Nabokov).

F.M. Dostoevsky is not just a continuer of traditions in Russian literature, but becomes the author of one leading theme - the theme of "poor people", "humiliated and offended". Dostoevsky asserts in his work that every person, no matter who he is, no matter how low he stands, has the right to sympathy and compassion.

Like many outstanding Russian writers, Dostoevsky already in his first novel "Poor People" refers to the theme of the little man.

The social theme, the theme of "poor people", "humiliated and insulted", was continued by the author in "Crime and Punishment", here it sounded even stronger. One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of hopeless poverty. Dostoevsky chose the dirtiest part of strictly St. Petersburg as the scene of action. Against the background of this ᴨȇizazh, the life of the Marmeladov family unfolds before us.

The fate of this family is closely intertwined with the fate of the protagonist, Rodion Raskolnikov. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has “nowhere else to go” in life. Exhausted by poverty, Marmeladov's wife, Katerina Ivanovna, dies of consumption. Sonya goes outside to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.

The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich man Luzhin, for whom she feels disgust. Other characters in the novel, including those unfortunate people who fleetingly meet Raskolnikov on the streets of St. Petersburg, complement this big picture immeasurable grief. Raskolnikov understands that the cruel force that creates dead ends for the poor and a bottomless sea of ​​​​suffering in life is money. And in order to get them, he commits a crime under the influence of a far-fetched idea of ​​"extraordinary personalities."

F.M. Dostoevsky created a vast canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peered intently and penetratingly into the soul of the so-called "little man" and discovered in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth, spiritual generosity and beauty, not broken by the hardest conditions of life. And this was a new word not only in Russian, but throughout the world literature.

The desire to be “rather big” gives rise to the well-known formula in Raskolnikov: “Am I a trembling creature or have the right?”, Which involves a judgment about the meaning human destiny by earthly standards. The hero in Dostoevsky is led by the devil into the field of mortal sin - murder.

One way or another, in Raskolnikov, Dostoevsky portrayed the protest of the “little man”, brought to the limit.

Dostoevsky knows how to create the image of a real fallen man: Marmelad's importunate sweetness, clumsy ornate speech - the property of a beer tribune and a jester at the same time. Awareness of his baseness (“I am a born cattle”) only strengthens his bravado.

Not even poverty, but poverty, in which a person not only literally dies of hunger, but also lose their human appearance and feeling dignity, - this is the state in which the unfortunate Marmeladov family is immersed. A drunken old man of marmalades, for the sake of a glass of vodka, humiliates himself before an innkeeper; his wife, the “proud” Katerina Ivanovna, dying of consumption and sending her seventeen-year-old stepdaughter, the great sufferer Sonya, to sell herself on the street to the libertines of St. Petersburg; the small children of Marmeladov dying of hunger, - bright to that confirmation. Material suffering entails a world of moral torment that disfigures the human psyche. Dobrolyubov wrote: “In the works of Dostoevsky we find one common feature, more or less noticeable in everything that he wrote: it is the pain of a person who recognizes himself as unable or, finally, not even entitled to be a person by himself.”

To understand the extent of a person's humiliation, one needs to delve into the inner world of the titular adviser Marmeladov. The state of mind of this petty official is much more complex and subtle than that of his literary predecessors - Pushkin's Samson Vyrin and Gogol's Bashmachkin. They do not have the power of introspection, which the hero of Dostoevsky achieved. Marmeladov not only suffers, but also analyzes his state of mind, he, as a doctor, puts a merciless diagnosis of the disease - the degradation of his own personality. Here is how he confesses in his first meeting with Raskolnikov: “Dear sir, poverty is not a vice, it is the truth. But ... poverty is a vice - p. In poverty, you still retain all the nobility of innate feelings, but in poverty, never anyone ... because in poverty, I myself am ready to insult myself. A person not only perishes from poverty, but understands how he is spiritually devastated: he begins to despise himself, but does not see anything around him to cling to, which would keep him from the decay of his personality. Marmeladov despises himself. We sympathize with him, we are tormented by his torments and we sharply hate the social circumstances that gave rise to human tragedy.

The cry of Marmeladov’s soul reaches tremendous artistic persuasiveness when he noticed the mockery of the tavern listeners: “Excuse me, young man, can you ... but no, explain stronger and more pictorially: can’t you, but dare you, looking at me at this hour, say in the affirmative that I am not a pig? Emphasizing these words, the writer sharpens our perception, deepens his thought. Of course, you can call a drunkard who destroys his family a swear word, but who will take the liberty to condemn such Marmeladov, who has become a truly tragic figure under the writer's spell!

Marmeladov rebels against the loneliness that a poor man is doomed to in the jungle of a ruthless city.

Marmelad's cry - "after all, it is necessary that every person could at least go somewhere" - expresses the last degree of despair of a dehumanized person.

Glancing at Marmeladov, Raskolnikov saw “an old, completely torn tailcoat with the remaining buttons. Only one held on somehow, and he fastened on it, apparently wanting to keep up appearances.

“More than once they have already pitied me,” says Marmeladov to Raskolnikov. The good general Ivan Afanasyevich also took pity on him, and again accepted him into the service. But Marmeladov could not stand the test, he took to drink again, drank all his salary, drank everything, and in return received a tattered tailcoat with a single button. Marmeladov in his behavior reached the point of losing the last human qualities. He is already so humiliated that he does not feel like a man, but only dreams of being a man among people.

The meeting with Marmeladov in the tavern, his feverish, as if delirious, confession gave Raskolnikov the last proof of the correctness of the “Napoleonic idea”.

Dostoevsky learned from many. What he learned from Gogol at first was especially noticeable in his works - in the choice of theme and hero, in individual elements, in the external details of the description, and even directly in the style. But precisely because of this circumstance, it became clearly distinguishable - according to the principle of contrast - the development by Gogol's student of his own inherent features in his view of man and the environment.

The most important and new, in comparison with other writers who have dealt with this topic, is Dostoevsky's downtrodden man's ability to look into himself, the ability of introspection and appropriate actions. The writer subjects to a detailed self-analysis, no other writer in essays, stories, sympathetically depicting the life and customs of the urban poor, had such a leisurely and concentrated psychological penetration and depth of depiction of the character of the characters.

The twentieth century brought the final formation of totalitarianism in Russia. In the period of the most cruel repressions, at a time when a person was completely impersonal and turned into a cog in a huge state machine, writers responded furiously, standing up for the individual.

Blinded by the grandeur of goals, stunned by loud slogans, we completely forgot about the individual person who remained a person after forty-five, and after fifty-three, and after sixty-four - a person with his daily worries, with his desires and hopes that no one can cancel political regime. The one whom Belinsky once called the “little man”, about whom Dostoevsky lamented, whom A.P. tried to raise from his knees. Chekhov, about whom M.A. wrote as a great Master. Burlgakov, lost in space huge state, turned into a small ᴨȇschinka for history, having disappeared in the camps. The writers made great efforts to resurrect him. The traditions of the classics, the titans of Russian literature, were continued by the writers of the urban direction of prose, those who wrote about the fate of the village during the years of the oppression of totalitarianism, and those who told us about the world of camps. There were dozens of them. It is enough to mention the names of several of them: A.I. Solzhenitsyn, A.T. Trifonov, A.T. Tvardovsky, V. Vysotsky. To understand what a huge scope literature has reached in the fate of the "little man" of the twentieth century.

Petersburg, Moscow - the city that has been troubling many Russian writers for so long has become even more terrible and cruel. He is a symbol of that powerful force that suppresses the weak sprouts of humanity, he is the focus of human grief, the mirror of all Russian reality, the reflection of which we see throughout the country, in the walls of camps and in the backyards of provincial towns.

The "little man" of our city of the 60s - 70s is not able to get to the surface of life and loudly declare his existence. But after all, he is also a man, not a louse, as Raskolnikov wanted to prove to himself, and he deserves not only attention, but also a better share. The way to achieve this was opened to him by those who in our time strived to “straighten their backs with humpbacks.” New writers come out in defense of truth and conscience, they formed a new person, in this regard, one cannot close the last page in a huge kiᴨȇ dedicated to him, the “little man”!

Bibliography:

1. Bulin A.P. " Artistic images F.M. Dostoevsky".

Moscow, Nauka, 1974

2. Volkova L.D. “Roman F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment".

Leningrad, Enlightenment, 1977

3. Gogol N.V. "Prose. Articles"

Moscow Sovremennik, Russia, 1977

4. Kirpotin V.Ya. "Disappointment and downfall of R. Raskolnikov."

Moscow, Fiction, 1986

5. Nabokov V.V. "Lectures on Russian Literature".

Moscow Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998

6. Turyanskaya B.I. "Literature in the 9th grade, lesson by lesson."

Moscow, Russian Word, 2002

Plan

Introduction

The problem of the new man in Griboedov's comedy Woe from Wit

Subject strong man in the work of N.A. Nekrasov

The problem of being lonely extra person V secular society in poetry and prose M.Yu. Lermontov

The problem of the poor man in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky Crime and Punishment

Subject folk character in the tragedy of A.N. Ostrovsky Thunderstorm

The theme of the people in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy War and Peace

The theme of society in the work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin Lord Golovlev

The problem of the little man in the stories and plays of A.P. Chekhov

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

man society Russian literature

Russian literature of the 19th century brought to the whole world the creations of such brilliant writers and poets like A.S. Griboedov, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharov, A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, N.A. Nekrasov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov and others.

In many works of these and other Russian authors of the 19th century, the themes of man, personality, people developed; personality was opposed to society (Woe from the Wit of A.S. Griboedov), the problem of an extra (lonely) person was demonstrated (Eugene Onegin A.S. Pushkin, Hero of Our Time M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​a poor person (Crime and Punishment F.M. . Dostoevsky), problems of the people (War and Peace of L.N. Tolstoy) and others. In most of the works, as part of the development of the theme of man and society, the authors demonstrated the tragedy of the individual.

The purpose of this essay is to consider the works of Russian authors of the 19th century, to study their understanding of the problem of man and society, the peculiarities of their perception of these problems. The study used critical literature, as well as the works of writers and poets of the Silver Age.

The problem of the new man in Griboedov's comedy Woe from Wit

Consider, for example, a comedy by A.S. Griboedova Woe from Wit, which played an outstanding role in the socio-political and moral education of several generations of Russian people. She armed them to fight violence and arbitrariness, meanness and ignorance in the name of freedom and reason, in the name of the triumph of advanced ideas and true culture. In the image of the protagonist of the comedy Chatsky, Griboyedov for the first time in Russian literature showed a new person, inspired by lofty ideas, revolting against a reactionary society in defense of freedom, humanity, mind and culture, cultivating a new morality, developing A New Look on the world and on human relations.

The image of Chatsky - a new, intelligent, developed person - is opposed to the Famus society. In Woe from Wit, all Famusov's guests simply copy the customs, habits and outfits of French milliners and rootless visiting rogues who got rich on Russian bread. All of them speak a mixture of French and Nizhny Novgorod and go dumb with delight at the sight of any visiting Frenchman from Bordeaux. Through the mouth of Chatsky, Griboyedov, with the greatest passion, exposed this unworthy servility to a stranger and contempt for his own:

So that the Lord destroyed this unclean spirit

Empty, slavish, blind imitation;

So that he would plant a spark in someone with a soul.

Who could by word and example

Hold us like a strong rein,

From pathetic nausea, on the side of a stranger.

Chatsky loves his people very much, but not the Famus society of landowners and officials, but the Russian people, hardworking, wise, powerful. Distinctive feature Chatsky as a strong person in contrast to the stiff Famus society lies in the fullness of feelings. In everything he shows true passion, he is always ardent in soul. He is hot, witty, eloquent, full of life, impatient. At the same time, Chatsky is the only open positive character in Griboyedov's comedy. But it is impossible to call it exceptional and lonely. He is young, romantic, ardent, he has like-minded people: for example, professors of the Pedagogical Institute, who, according to Princess Tugoukhovskaya, practice splits and disbelief, these are crazy people prone to learning, this is the nephew of the princess, Prince Fedor, a chemist and botanist. Chatsky defends the rights of a person to freely choose his occupation: travel, live in the countryside, focus his mind on science or devote himself to creative, high and beautiful arts.

Chatsky defends the folk society and ridicules the Famus society, its life and behavior in his monologue:

Are not these rich in robbery?

They found protection from court in friends, in kinship.

Magnificent building chambers,

Where they overflow in feasts and prodigality.

It can be concluded that Chatsky in comedy represents the young thinking generation of Russian society, its best part. A. I. Herzen wrote about Chatsky: The image of Chatsky, sad, restless in his irony, trembling with indignation, devoted to a dreamy ideal, appears at the last moment of the reign of Alexander I, on the eve of the uprising on St. Isaac's Square. This is a Decembrist, this is a man who completes the era of Peter the Great and tries to see, at least on the horizon, the promised land ....

The theme of a strong man in the work of N.A. Nekrasov