Translated literature of ancient Rus'. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
1. Specifics of Old Russian literature. Features of medieval aesthetics and poetics.
Russian literature before the 18th century. “ancient”, the initial stage in the development of great Russian literature, which has acquired global significance. High ideology, national character, living connection with pressing issues public life, journalistic, topical due to the fact that she took a very direct part in the ideological and political struggle of her time, reflecting the class struggle in Russian society. cognitive significance, educational value, themes of patriotism, state building, political unity and heroism of the Russian people, elements of oral poetry, features of real life. many themes, images and motifs of ancient Russian literature were used by Russian writers of modern times. the end of ancient Russian literature and the beginning of a new one - the end of the 17th century. Russian literature at this time puts forward new themes and new ideas related to the fact that it becomes at the service of the state structure reformed by Peter. At the same time, new literary genres and styles were developing. So, ancient Russian literature dates back approximately six and a half centuries of existence. Periods:
1. 11-12th centuries. The predominance of Byzantine literary monuments. The first lives, chronicles. Tsentr-Kyiv, Novgorod. In the rest it is poorly developed. (Illarion of Kyiv, Life)
2. 12-13th centuries. period of feudal fragmentation. The emergence of new centers. Original monuments + translated ones. (over the years, the word about Igor’s campaign, oratorical prose, Kirill of Turov)
3. 13th century Tatar-Mongol yoke. Decline of national identity and cultural life. The decline of chronicles. A special genre is about ruin. (p. about the battle on the river Kalka, about the destruction of Ryazan by the baty, A. Nevsky)
4. 14th century Rising national consciousness. Battle of Kulikovo 1382 (zadonshchina, Dmitry Ivanovich’s word, about Mamaev’s massacre)
5. 15th century Pre-Renaissance ideas. Awareness of the role of the individual, humanism, manifests the inner world of a person in a weak form. Changing the monumental-historical style to a national-expressive one. (walking of A. Nikitin, life of Radonezh, epiphanius the wise)
6. 16th century Moscow's role is leading. The destruction of the feudal system and the establishment of a centralized system of government. State propaganda values, the priority of the state over individuality. the inner world of the individual is not interesting. A person serves the state. Priority of the letter over the spirit. Copying texts (did not always make sense) the task of the literati is to summarize the information according to the definition. Subject. (domostroy, journalism, peresvetov, correspondence between Grozny and Kurbsky)
7. 17th century Trouble, chaos. Reorientation to Western culture. Destruction of traditional mentality and genre system. Individualistic tendencies. Liberation from canons. Satirical literature, poetry, drama.
8. 18th century The least literary one. The era of classicism.
Printing - in the middle of the 16th century. served primarily liturgical literature. The handwritten tradition of ancient Russian literature contributed to the variability of literary monuments. The concept of literary property and individual author's monopoly on a literary work was absent in ancient Rus'. The development of ancient Russian literature generally proceeded in parallel with the evolution of the literary language. In monuments with church-religious themes, the presence of elements of the Church Slavonic language is also evident. The literary process in ancient Rus' was closely connected with changes in the material and technique of writing. Features: - bookishness is not art - literature as commentary on holy scripture - reverse plagiarism - canon - symbolism - features of postmodernism (total text, death of the author, everything has already been written) - language (diglasie) Old Church Slavonic, Church Slavonic. - marginalia – notes in the margins not related to the text
2. Genre system of ancient Russian literature.
· Chronographs told about the history of the world; (translated Alexandria)
· about the history of the fatherland - chronicles, monuments of historical writing and literature of Ancient Rus', the narration in which was carried out by year. They narrated the events of Russian and world history.
· There was an extensive literature of moralizing biographies - lives of saints, or hagiography. Collections of short stories about the lives of monks were widespread. Such collections were called patericons (life of Eustathius Plakida, Kiev-Pechora patericon)
· The genres of solemn and teaching eloquence are represented by various teachings and words. Christian holidays were glorified in solemn words pronounced in church during services. The teachings exposed vices and glorified virtues.
· The walks told about travels to the holy land of Palestine.
· Church Gospel texts
Literature in its genre structure seemed to repeat the structure of feudal society. Disparate works were grouped into a coherent whole: chronicles, chronographs, patericons, etc. Individual parts of the work could belong to different genres.
The development of ancient Russian literature of the 11th–17th centuries proceeds through the gradual destruction of a stable system of church genres and their transformation. Genres of worldly literature are subject to fictionalization 2 . They intensify interest in the inner world of a person, the psychological motivation of his actions, and appear entertaining and everyday descriptions. Historical heroes are being replaced by fictional ones. In the 17th century, this led to radical changes in the internal structure and style of historical genres and contributed to the birth of new, purely fictional works. There appeared virsch poetry, court and school drama, democratic satire, everyday story, a picaresque novella.
3. Translated literature of Kievan Rus.
translations in the XI-XII centuries. in some cases preceded the creation of original works of the same genre. Rus' began to read other people's things before writing their own. Bulgaria and Byzantium played the most important role in this regard.
Byzantine and Bulgarian books in Rus'. The phenomenon of "transplantation"
A significant part of the books, and in particular liturgical books, were brought in the 10th-11th centuries. from Bulgaria. Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) and Old Russian languages so close that Rus' was able to use the ready-made Old Slavonic Cyrillic alphabet, created by the great Bulgarian enlighteners Cyril and Methodius. translations directly from Greek. Translations from other languages were less common
transplantation (“transplantation”) of literature from one country to another - about the transfer of Byzantine literature to Russian soil. Before the adoption of Christianity, the art of speech was represented by folklore. works were not simply translated or rewritten, they continued their literary history on new soil. This means that new editions of works were created, their plot changed. Already a few decades after the start of this process in Rus', their own original works began to be created based on the model of translated monuments - lives, solemn and teaching words, stories, etc.
Genres of translated literature. Bible books. Let us now turn to the consideration of the main genres of translated literature of the 11th-13th centuries.
The basis for Christian doctrine and worldview were biblical books (or Holy Scripture), as well as the works of the most authoritative theologians. The Bible was completely translated into Rus' only in the 15th century, but individual biblical books became known in Slavic translations (through Bulgarian media) already in the 15th century. Kievan Rus. The books of the New Testament and the Psalter were most widely used at this time.
The books of sacred scripture and liturgical books, in addition to purely teaching and service functions, also had considerable aesthetic significance: the Bible contained vivid plot stories, the books of the prophets were distinguished by increased emotionality, vivid imagery, passion in exposing vices and social injustice; the psalter and service menaions were brilliant examples of church poetry, although their Slavic translations were prosaic.
Patristics. works of Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-11th centuries, revered as “fathers of the church.” the dogmas of the Christian religion were commented on, polemics were conducted with heretics, the foundations of Christian morality or the rules of monastic life were presented in the form of teachings and instructions (works of John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea...) Patristic literature played a role important role in the formation of the ethical ideals of the new religion and in strengthening the foundations of Christian dogma, contributed to the improvement of the oratory art of Russian church writers.
The collections of sayings “The Wisdom of Menander the Wise”, “The Sayings of Hesychius and Barnabas” and especially “The Bee” were studied by M. N. Speransky.
Lives of the Saints. stories about the life, suffering or pious deeds of people canonized by the church, that is, recognized as saints and officially honored. Hagiography. the plots and plot devices of ancient Greek adventure novels were used, the intervention of miraculous forces - angels or demons, the illusion of believability of the most fantastic episodes. (the lives of Alexei, the Man of God, Basil the New, Sava the Sanctified, Irina, Anthony the Great, Theodora and others. An example of a life-novel is “The Life of Eustathius Placis”).
Patericon.- collections of short stories, mostly about monks who became famous for their piety or asceticism.
If the righteous are accompanied by divine help, then the sinners in the patericon legends face a terrible - and what is especially characteristic - not posthumous, but immediate punishment: a thief who desecrates graves has his eyes gouged out by a living dead man; the ship does not move until a female child killer steps into the boat from its side, and this boat with the sinner is immediately swallowed up by the abyss; a servant who has decided to kill and rob his mistress cannot leave his place and stabs himself to death. The patericons depict a certain fantastic world in which the forces of good and evil are constantly fighting for the souls of people, where the righteous are not just pious, but pious to the point of frenzy and exaltation , where miracles sometimes happen in the most everyday settings.
The subjects of translated patericons influenced the work of ancient Russian scribes: in Russian patericons and lives we sometimes encounter similar episodes and characteristics borrowed from Byzantine patericon legends
Apocrypha-renounced, heretical books. legends about characters from biblical history, but plot-wise different from those contained in the biblical canonical books. Sometimes in the apocrypha the origin of the world, its structure, or the question of the “end of the world”, which so worried the minds of the Middle Ages, was considered from a different ideological perspective. Finally, apocryphal motifs could be included in works of traditional genres, for example, in hagiographies. Apocryphal subjects are found in chronicles, chronicles, and paleas, and the apocrypha themselves are found in collections, along with authoritative and revered works. apocryphal tales about the prophet Jeremiah, apocrypha “The Walk of Agapius into Paradise”, “The Tale of Aphroditian”, “The Virgin Mary’s Walk through Torment” and a number of others. At the same time, the apocrypha satisfied not only literary, but also theological interests. They posed problems that especially worried the minds of religious people: about the causes of disorder in this world, which, as the church taught, was created and controlled by an omnipotent and just deity, about the future of the world, about the fate of man after his death, etc. This topic dedicated, for example, to the popular apocrypha - “The Walk of the Virgin Mary through the Torment.” Apocrypha was found in ancient Russian writing throughout its history, and in the future we will have to return to apocryphal stories that became widespread at a later time.
Chronicles.“Chronicle of George Amartol” - a sinner; it is a traditional self-deprecating epithet for a monk. from the “creation of the world”; then he sets out biblical history, the history of the Babylonian and Persian kings, talks about the Roman emperors, and the emperors of Byzantium. “Chronicles of Simeon Logothet” The chronicler was most interested in church history. The Old Russian scribe, on the contrary, was largely interested in history as such: the fate of the great powers of antiquity, information about their most outstanding rulers, as well as various entertaining stories from the lives of outstanding kings, emperors or sages. an abbreviated chronographic code called the “Chronograph of the Great Exposition.” brief information about the kings and emperors of the countries of the East, Rome and Byzantium, legends and stories about miracles and heavenly signs, outlined the decisions of church councils. “Chronograph according to the great exposition” was used in the compilation of the Russian chronicle. " Chronicle of John Malala". No later than the 11th century. Ancient myths and the history of the Trojan War were presented. the history of Rome and, finally, the history of Byzantium up to the reign of Emperor Justinian (VI century).
"History of the Jewish War" by Josephus. No later than the beginning of the 12th century. The first two books recount the history of Judea, beginning in 175 BC. e. and ending 66 AD. e. - the time of the uprising against Roman rule, the third - sixth books tell about the suppression of the uprising by Vespasian, and then his son Titus, about the siege, capture and destruction of Jerusalem; finally, the last, 7th book tells about the triumph of Vespasian and Titus in Rome. The works of Josephus Flavius are by no means a dry historical chronicle - it is rather a literary and journalistic work. The journalistic spirit of the work is manifested, in particular, in the speeches of the characters - Vespasian, Titus and Joseph himself (the author speaks about himself in the third person); the main goal of these speeches, constructed according to all the rules of ancient declamations, is to convince of the destructive intentions of the rebels and glorify the nobility and valor of the Romans. The stylistic art of Josephus is manifested not only in the monologues and dialogues of the heroes, but also in the descriptions - be they descriptions of the nature of Judea or its cities, battles or terrible scenes of famine in besieged Jerusalem; rhythmic syllable, vivid comparisons and metaphors, precise epithets, concern for euphony (clearly manifested in the original “History”) - all this suggests that the author attached great importance to the literary side of the work.
Chronographic Alexandria. No later than the 12th century. an extensive novel about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, the so-called “Alexandria,” was translated from Greek. As already said, “Alexandria” is not so much a historical novel or a fictionalized biography of the hero as a novel of adventures, and Alexander’s personality itself acquires some completely legendary features. Thus, he is declared not to be the son of the Macedonian king Philip, but the son of the former Egyptian king-sorcerer Nektonav, who appeared to Philip’s wife Olympias under the guise of the god Ammon. The birth of Alexander is accompanied by miraculous signs: thunder roars and the earth shakes. Contrary to history, “Alexandria” tells about Alexander’s campaign in Sicily and his conquest of Rome. This is no coincidence: the Macedonian commander appears in the novel not only as the winner of the great Persian power, but also as a hero who managed to conquer the whole world. For example, the interpretation of the episode of the death of Darius is typical: mortally wounded by his satraps, the king himself gives Alexander power over Persia and gives him his daughter Roxana as his wife; whereas in reality Roxana, one of Alexander’s wives, was the daughter not of Darius, but of a Bactrian satrap. The novel has many sharp plot conflicts. So, Alexander goes to Darius under the guise of his own ambassador and only accidentally avoids exposure and captivity. Another time, posing as his associate Antigonus, he comes to Queen Candace, whose son wants to deal with Alexander, because he killed his father-in-law, the Indian king Porus. Candace recognizes Alexander, and he manages to escape danger only because the queen decides to hide the secret of her guest in gratitude for saving her other son. Alexander's death is also surrounded by mystery. The hero becomes aware of his imminent death from a sign; when he dies, the sky darkens, a bright star lights up and descends into the sea, the “Babylonian idol” wavers.
Devgenie's act. In the XI-XII centuries. a translation of the Byzantine epic tale about the hero Digenis Akritos was also carried out
The Tale of Akira the Wise. Akir, advisor to the king of Ador and Naliv countries (i.e. Assyria and Nineveh) Sinagrip, by divine direction adopts his nephew Anadan. He raised and educated him, taught him all the wisdom (the story contains a long list of Akir’s instructions to Anadan) and, finally, introduced him to the king as his student and successor. However, Anadan begins to rampage in Akir’s house, and when he tries to curb him, he carries out an insidious plan: having forged Akir’s handwriting, Anadan composes forged letters that will convince Synagrip that Akir is plotting high treason. The king is shocked by the imaginary betrayal of his adviser, and Akir, out of surprise, cannot justify himself and only manages to ask permission so that the death sentence passed on him at Anadan’s insistence will be carried out by his old friend. Akira manages to convince his friend of his innocence, he executes the criminal instead of Akira, and hides Akira himself in a dungeon. The Egyptian pharaoh, having heard about the execution of Akir, sends envoys to Synagripus demanding that one of his entourage build a house between heaven and earth. Synagripus is in despair: Anadan, whom he was counting on, refuses to help, saying that only a god can complete this task. Then Akira's friend informs the king that the disgraced adviser is alive. The king sends Akir to Egypt, where he solves all the ingenious riddles that the pharaoh offers him. Akir forces the pharaoh to abandon the demand to build a house: the eagles trained by Akir raise a boy into the sky, who asks to give him stones and lime, but the Egyptians, naturally, cannot do this. Having received tribute for three years, Akir returns to Synagrip, chains Anadan at the porch of his house and begins to reproach him for the evil he has done. In vain Anadan begs for forgiveness. Unable to withstand Akir’s stinging reproaches, he swells up “like a jug” and bursts with anger. This story is interesting as an action-packed work: the cunning and cunning of Anadan, who slanderes his adoptive father, and the wisdom of Akir, who finds a worthy way out of all the difficulties in which the pharaoh is trying to stage it, creating many acute collisions in the work. On the other hand, almost the fourth part of the story is occupied by the instructions with which Akir addresses Anadan: here are maxims on the topics of friendship, justice, generosity, etiquette, and denunciation of “evil wives.”
Natural science essays. Byzantine science of the early Middle Ages was very closely connected with theology. The natural world, information about which Byzantine scientists could glean both from their own observations and from the writings of ancient philosophers and naturalists, was considered primarily as a visual evidence of the wisdom of God who created the world, or as a kind of living allegory: natural phenomena, the habits of living beings or the world of minerals - all this seemed to be a kind of embodiment in living and material images of some eternal truths, concepts or moral teachings.
Six days works commenting on the short biblical story about God’s creation of the sky, stars, luminaries, earth, living beings, plants and humans within six days (hence the title of the book - “Six Days”
"Physiologist". about living creatures, both real (lion, eagle, ant, whale, elephant, etc.) and fantastic (phoenix, sirens, centaur), and only about some plants or precious stones (diamond, flint, magnet, etc. ) Each story reported the properties of a creature or object, and then gave a symbolic interpretation of these properties. However, as a rule, both the habits of animals and the characteristics of plants or stones in the presentation of the “Physiologist” are completely fantastic, for its main goal is to find an analogy between the properties of a creature or object and some theological concept.
"Christian Topography" Cosmas of Indicoplova. Cosmas was a merchant who traveled to Egypt, Ethiopia and Arabia around 530. It is believed that Cosmas was not in India itself, despite his nickname - Indicoplov (that is, who sailed to India), and gives information about this country from other people's stories. The monument consists of 12 “words” (chapters), which contain a discussion about the structure of the Universe. In particular, Cosmas claims that the Earth is flat; it and the sky covering it are likened to a room with a vaulted ceiling. The sky we see consists of water, and above it stretches another sky, invisible to us. The movement of the luminaries and atmospheric phenomena are controlled by angels specially assigned for this purpose. Equally legendary is the information about the flora and fauna of the countries that Cosma speaks of.
4. The Bible as a translated monument of ancient Russian literature.
Old Bulgarian translations from Greek - biblical books - Old Testament, i.e., telling about the ancient destinies of the Jewish people, and New Testament, i.e., associated with the initial period of Christianity. The reliability of the stories is minimal, as is the reliability of the authorship of individual parts of the Bible. Bible books Old Testament consisted of three sections: “Law”, “Prophets” and “Scriptures”. The "Law", or "Pentateuch of Moses", included the books "Genesis", "Exodus", "Leviticus", "Numbers" and "Deuteronomy" and contained rules and regulations relating to the religious and social life of the Jews, legendary information about creation of the world and man and legends about the origin Jewish people and his fate before his occupation of Palestine. The biblical books of the New Testament consist of the Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John), Acts and the Epistles of the Apostles, or, for short, the Apostle, and Revelation, or the Apocalypse of John the Theologian. the foundations of Christian mythology, which reflected the diverse layers of various ancient religious systems, myths and legends. The Apostolic Epistles set the task of popularizing, interpreting and explaining the Gospel in relation to those circumstances that were caused by the social and religious practice of individual Christian communities, religious groups or individuals. catastrophic events, the second coming to earth of Christ, finally defeating his enemy and the enemy of the entire human race - the Antichrist. Ancient Russian literature often used biblical quotations and in a number of cases used biblical stylistics and figurative means of the Bible. The Psalter has gained particular popularity since ancient times. This was due to her poetic merits, verbal expressiveness and the religious lyricism that penetrated her through and through. These qualities of the Psalter made it not only a reference book for reading, but also a teaching book, and it fulfilled this role for many centuries. The texts of Proverbs and the Wisdom of Solomon were also popular in ancient Russian literature, attracting the ancient Russian reader not only with their content, but also with their sharp aphorism. As for the Gospel and the Apostle, they served as our main source for religious and moral formulations in the spirit of Christian doctrine. Liturgical books, in addition to the biblical ones, also include the Service Menaion. The poetic style and verbal formulas of prayers and chants were to a certain extent used by our ancient literature.
5. Hagiographic literature of the 11th – 12th centuries. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”.
hagiographic, or hagiographical (from the Greek auos - saint), through which the church sought to give its flock examples practical application abstract Christian positions. The conventional, idealized image of a Christian ascetic, whose life and work took place in an atmosphere of legend and miracle, was the most suitable conductor of the ideology that the church was called upon to instill. The author of the life, a hagiographer, pursued primarily the task of presenting an image of the saint that would correspond to the established idea of an ideal church hero. Only those facts were taken from his life that corresponded to this idea, and everything that diverged from it was hushed up. Usually the life of a saint began with a brief mention of his parents, who turned out to be mostly pious people and at the same time noble. Next they talked about the behavior of the future saint in childhood. He is distinguished by modesty, obedience, diligence in his book work, shuns games with peers and is completely imbued with piety. Later, often from youth, his ascetic life begins, mostly in a monastery or in desert solitude. It is accompanied by ascetic mortification of the flesh and the fight against all sorts of passions. In order, for example, to get rid of female temptation, the saint causes himself physical pain: he cuts off a finger, thereby distracting himself from carnal lusts (cf. the corresponding episode in L. Tolstoy’s “Father Sergius”), etc. Often the saint is haunted by demons in which The same sinful temptations are embodied, but through prayer, fasting and abstinence the saint overcomes the devilish obsession. He has the ability to perform miracles and communicate with heavenly powers. For the most part, the death of a saint is peaceful and quiet: the saint passes painlessly into another world, and his body emits a fragrance after death; Miraculous healings take place at the saint’s tomb and at his grave: the blind receive their sight, the deaf receive hearing, the sick are healed. The life usually ends with praise to the saint. Byzantium in the 4th century. a sample is the life of Anthony the Great, written by Athanasius of Alexandria. translated lives of Nicholas the Wonderworker, Anthony the Great, John Chrysostom, Savva the Sanctified, Basil the New, Andrew the Fool, Alexei the Man of God, Vyacheslav the Czech (the latter of West Slavic origin), etc. In the 11th - early 12th centuries. the first Russian lives were created: two lives of Boris and Gleb, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, “The Life of Anthony of Pechersk” (not preserved until modern times). Their writing was not only a literary fact, but also an important link in the ideological policy of the Russian state. At this time, the Russian princes persistently sought from the Patriarch of Constantinople the rights to canonize their own Russian saints, which would significantly increase the authority of the Russian Church. The creation of a life was an indispensable condition for the canonization of a saint. We will consider here one of the lives of Boris and Gleb - “Reading about the life and destruction” of Boris and Gleb and “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”. Both lives were written by Nestor. Comparing them is especially interesting, since they represent two hagiographic types - hagiography-martyrium (story about martyrdom saint) and monastic life, which tells about the entire life path of the righteous man, his piety, asceticism, the miracles he performed, etc. Nestor, of course, took into account the requirements of the Byzantine hagiographic canon. There is no doubt that he knew translated Byzantine Lives. But at the same time, he showed such artistic independence, such extraordinary talent that the creation of these two masterpieces makes him one of the outstanding ancient Russian writers, regardless of whether he was also the compiler of “The Tale of Bygone Years” (this issue remains controversial).
6. “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion as an exegetical text.
Among the genres of Byzantine literature, the works of the church fathers - theologians and preachers - occupied a place of honor. These “words” and teachings of Byzantine authors were widely known in Rus', and already in the 11th century. original works of Russian writers appear: “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, the teachings of the Novgorod Bishop Luke Zhidyata and the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Theodosius; in the 12th century Old Russian literature is enriched with such masterpieces of solemn eloquence as the “words” of Cyril of Turov.
"A Word on Law and Grace."“The Sermon on Law and Grace,” written by the Kiev priest Hilarion (the future metropolitan), as N. N. Rozov believes, was first spoken by him in 1049 in honor of the completion of the construction of Kiev defensive structures.
However, the meaning of the “Word” goes far beyond the genre of solemn holiday words pronounced in church before the believers. Hilarion's "Lay" is a kind of church-political treatise in which the Russian land and its princes are glorified.
The Lay begins with a lengthy theological discussion. Contrasting the Old and New Testaments, Hilarion holds the idea that the Old Testament is a law established only for the Jewish people, while the New Testament is a grace extending to all peoples who have adopted Christianity without exception. Hilarion returns several times to this important thought for him; to confirm it, he reveals the symbolism of biblical images, recalls the sayings of the “church fathers”, and with various reasons and arguments he supports his thesis about the superiority of Christianity over Judaism intended for one people, about the high calling of Christian peoples.
This first, dogmatic part of the “Lay” leads to the central idea of the work: Prince Vladimir, on his own impulse (and not on the advice or insistence of the Greek clergy), accomplished a “great and wondrous” deed - he baptized Rus'. Vladimir is the “teacher and mentor” of the Russian land, thanks to whom “grace-filled faith” and “until our language (people) of Russian came to fruition.” The role of Vladimir as the baptizer of Rus' grows to a universal scale: Vladimir is “equal in mind”, “equal lover of Christ” to Constantine the Great himself, the emperor of the “two Romes” - Eastern and Western, who, according to church tradition, proclaimed Christianity state religion in Byzantium and extremely revered in the empire. Equal deeds and equal dignity give the right to equal veneration. Thus Hilarion leads his listeners to the idea of the need to recognize Vladimir as a saint. He puts him on a par with the apostles John, Thomas, Mark, to whom belongs the merit of converting various countries and lands to the Christian faith. At the same time, Hilarion seeks to glorify the power of the Russian land and emphasize its authority. The phraseology of church sermons is sometimes replaced by the phraseology of chronicle praise: Vladimir’s ancestors, Igor and Svyatoslav, became famous throughout the world for their courage and bravery, “victories and strength”; and they ruled not in the “unknown land,” but in Rus', which “is known and heard by all four ends of the earth.” And Vladimir himself is not only a devout Christian, but a mighty “single ruler of his land,” who managed to conquer neighboring countries“You are conquered by peace, but those who are disobedient are conquered by the sword.”
The third and final part of the Lay is dedicated to Yaroslav the Wise. Hilarion portrays him not only as a continuer of Vladimir’s spiritual behests, not only as a diligent builder of new churches, but also as a worthy “vicar... of the dominion” of his father. Even in prayer, Hilarion does not forget about the worldly, political needs of Russia: he prays to God to “drive away” enemies, establish peace, “tame” neighboring countries, “make wise the boyars,” strengthen cities... This civic spirit of church preaching is well explained by the situation of the thirties and forties the years of the 11th century, when Yaroslav sought by all means the independence of the Russian church and Russian state policy and when the idea of equality of Russia in relations with Byzantium (and not subordination to it) took on the most acute forms, influencing even church construction; for example, in Rus', temples were built with the same name to the famous cathedrals of Constantinople: St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, the churches of St. Irene and St. George in Kiev, the Kiev “Golden Gate”, etc. According to the plans of politicians and architects, Kiev became as if a rival of Constantinople.
There is a well-founded opinion that the first work on Russian history also belongs to Hilarion: a cycle of stories about the Christianization of Rus', from which Russian chronicle writing may have begun; This is evidenced by numerous textual parallels contained in both monuments
7. Solemn words of Kirill of Turovsky.
Kirill Turovsky. The later “Life of Cyril” reports that he took monastic vows early, became a recluse (that is, lived alone in a cell) and during the period of his seclusion “expounded a lot of divine scriptures.” Later, the prince and the townspeople begged Cyril to take the episcopal see in the city of Turov (in the north-west of the Kyiv land). Cyril died no later than 1182. The authority of Cyril’s works was so great that many of his “words” were included in the collections “Chrysostom” and “The Triumphant” along with the works of John Chrysostom. The authorship of a number of works inscribed with the name of Cyril of Turov is controversial, but with sufficient it can be considered that he owns the “Parable of the Soul and Body”, “The Tale of the Beloriztsev and the Minshtstvo”, “The Tale of the Chernizhsky Rite”, eight “words” for church holidays, thirty prayers and two canons (a cycle of chants in honor of the saint ).
“The Parable of Soul and Body,” written, according to I. P. Eremin, between 1160-1169, is an accusatory pamphlet against the Rostov Bishop Fedor (Fedorets). The parable is based on the plot of a blind man and a lame man. Its essence is as follows. A certain owner of a vineyard assigned two watchmen to guard it: one blind, the other lame. He hoped that the lame man would not be able to enter the vineyard, and if the blind man entered, he would get lost. However, the lame will see the thief, and the blind will hear him. But the watchmen decided to outwit the master: the lame man sat astride the blind man and showed him where to go. In this way they were able to rob the vineyard, but they paid dearly for it. In the parable, the blind man is an allegory of the soul, and the lame man is an allegory of the body. At the same time, it is the soul (the blind man) who seduces the body (the lame man) into committing a crime. Kirill of Turovsky, interpreting the “Parable,” allowed the reader to guess that by the blind man he meant Bishop Fedor, and by the lame man, Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. The reason for writing the parable was the prince’s attempt to establish a bishopric in Vladimir, independent of the Kiev metropolitan, for which Feodor went to Constantinople to receive initiation from the local patriarch, and deceived the latter by saying that there was no metropolitan in Kiev - he had died. Subsequently, the deception was revealed, the Kiev Metropolitan excommunicated Fyodor from the church, and Andrei Bogolyubsky’s attempt to achieve church autonomy from Kiev was condemned. The most famous were the solemn “words” of Cyril, intended for reading in church on church holidays. In these “words” Cyril supplements and develops the underlying gospel stories with new details, composes dialogues for the characters, thus creating a new plot that would provide him with great opportunities for an allegorical interpretation of the meaning of a particular holiday. The main artistic principle in “ words" of Kirill is rhetorical amplification. “This or that topic with him,” writes I. P. Eremin, “always varies verbally, spreads until its content is completely exhausted.” Each topic was clothed in the form of a rhetorical tirade, in which sentences that were synonymous in meaning and of the same type in syntactic structure alternated. Consider one of the “words” of Kirill Turovsky - “A Word for the New Week of Easter.” The “Word” begins with a kind of introduction explaining the reason for it writing: “Great is the teacher and wise is the storyteller to demand the church to decorate the holiday,” but we, “poor in word” and “clouded in mind,” continues Kirill, “can only say “a little something” about the holiday. The author further characterizes the holiday of Easter: when “everything changed”: the earth became heaven, cleansed of demonic filth, people were renewed, for from pagans they became Christians... The new week is a renewal of people who have accepted the Christian faith. Kirill Turovsky paints a picture of the spring awakening of nature: the sky, freed from clouds, brightens, the sun rises to a height and warms the earth, the winds blow quietly, the earth gives birth to green grass, “lambs and ounces” (i.e., lambs and bulls) are jumping, rejoicing in the spring ), flowers bloom and leaves bloom on the trees... However, Kirill Turovsky immediately gives a parallel to each element of this description, after which it becomes clear that this vivid picture is just a series of metaphors and comparisons designed to elevate, glorify and, most importantly, , to explain to believers certain tenets of the Christian faith. Spring is the faith of Christ, “lambs” are “meek people”, “uns” are “idol worshipers” of pagan countries that have joined or will join Christianity, etc. Each of Cyril’s “words” is a vivid example of festive, solemn eloquence . The author is fluent in the art of rhetoric: he either addresses the listeners, then conveys the Gospel plot or a complex theological concept with the help of colorful allegories, as was shown above, then he questions and immediately answers himself, argues with himself, proves to himself. Researchers of the work of Kirill of Turov have long established that in allegories, and in the methods of their interpretation, and in the rhetorical figures themselves, the author is not always original: he relies on Byzantine examples, quotes or retells fragments from the “words” of famous Byzantine preachers. But in general, the works of the Bishop of Turov are not just compilations of other people’s images and quotes - they are a free rethinking of traditional material, which results in a new work, perfect in form, cultivating in listeners a sense of the word, captivating them with the harmony of rhythmically constructed speech periods. Syntactic parallelism of forms, the widespread use of morphological rhyme (the use of a number of similar grammatical forms) in the “words” of Kirill of Turov, as it were, compensated for the lack of book poetry, prepared the Russian reader for the perception of the “weaving of words” and the ornamental style of the 14th-16th centuries. Let's give just one example. In his tirade, “(Christ) introduces the soul of the prophet saints into the heavenly kingdom, divides the monasteries of the mountain city with his saints, opens paradise to the righteous, crowns the martyrs who suffered for him. ..” each of the three members of the syntactic construction (predicate, direct and indirect objects) turns out to be parallel. Further, its rhythmic pattern becomes even more complicated, since the direct object, expressed in the constructions of the above passage in one word, now turns into a phrase, each of the components of which, in turn, has parallel constructions: “all who do his will and keep his commandments have mercy.” , sends to our faithful princes the health of our bodies and souls, salvation and victory over the enemy... blesses all peasants, small with great, poor with rich, slaves with free, old with husbands and married with maidens...” The work of Kirill of Turov testifies that ancient Russian scribes of the 12th century reached the heights of literary perfection, were fluent in all the variety of techniques developed by ancient rhetoric and developed by the classical solemn eloquence of Byzantium. Kirill Turovsky, having embodied in his work those principles of “stashhouse interpretation” that Kliment Smolyatich defended, followed him in the art of widespread use of the technique of rhetorical amplification.
8. Educational literature of Kievan Rus. "Teaching" by Vladimir Monomakh.
outside the traditional genre system. One of these works is the famous “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh. these are four independent works; three of them, indeed, belong to Vladimir Monomakh: this is the “Teaching” itself, an autobiography and “Letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich”. The prayer does not belong to Monomakh. Let us recall that all four named works are known to us in one list: they are inserted into the text of the “Tale of Bygone Years” in the Laurentian Chronicle, as if dividing the text of the chronicle article of 1096.
The “Teaching” was written by Monomakh, apparently in 1117. He taught to observe the norms of Christian morality: to be “meek,” to listen to the “elders” and submit to them, “to have love with the equals and the lesser,” not to offend orphans and widows - the contours of a certain political program are visible. The main idea of the “Instruction”: the prince must unquestioningly obey the “eldest”, live in peace with other princes, and not oppress junior princes or boyars; the prince must avoid unnecessary bloodshed, be a hospitable host, not indulge in laziness, not get carried away with power, not rely on the tiuns (those who manage the prince’s household) in everyday life and on the governor on campaigns, delve into everything himself...
Reinforcing your instructions and teachings with personal example. The “Instruction” ends with a call not to fear death, either in battle or hunting, valiantly performing “a man’s work.” Another work of Monomakh is “Letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich.” The reason for its writing was an inter-princely feud, during which Oleg killed Monomakh’s son, Izyaslav. True to his principles of justice and “brotherly love,” Monomakh makes a call for prudence and reconciliation. This letter amazes not only with the generosity and statesmanship of the prince, but also with heartfelt lyricism, especially in that part of the letter where Monomakh asks Oleg to release Izyaslav’s widow to him. “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh is so far the only example in ancient Russian literature of political and moral instruction created by not a clergyman, but a statesman. The author was fluent in different styles of literary language and skillfully applied them according to the genre and theme of the work. Monomakh calls his children to an active life, to constant work and convinces them never to remain in laziness or indulge in debauchery. You cannot rely on either the servants or the governor, and you yourself need to enter into everything and supervise everything so that no trouble happens. One should avoid drunkenness and fornication, because both soul and body perish from this. What you know, you should not forget, and what you don’t know, you should learn, as Monomakh’s father (Vsevolod) learned, who learned five languages while sitting at home, for which they give honor in foreign lands. In the Instruction, Monomakh expresses poetic delight in the beauty of nature. At its core, the language of the “Instruction” and the letter to Oleg of Chernigov is the indigenous Russian language, only to a small extent complicated by Church Slavonicisms, most often present in the actual edifying part of the “Instruction” and less often in its autobiographical part and in the letter to the Chernigov prince Oleg."
9. Old Russian chronicle. "The Tale of Bygone Years."
"The Tale of Bygone Years." The chronicle - a systematic chronicle kept year after year - grew to a large extent on the basis of the oral historical epic.
Chronicle of how literary genre in the middle of the 11th century. However, the oldest lists of chronicles date back to a later time: the 13th and 14th centuries. - Synodal list of the First Novgorod Chronicle, Laurentian list dates back to 1377, Ipatiev Chronicle to the first quarter of the 15th century.
The study of chronicles is further complicated by the following circumstance. In almost every chronicle, the history of Rus' is set out “from the very beginning” - the text of the “Tale of Bygone Years” is given in full or in an abbreviation, sometimes very significant, telling “where the Russian land came from.”
“The Tale of Bygone Years,” which will be discussed below, was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Compiled by Nestor. was a complete, literary history of Rus'.
corpus, a work based on previous chronicle writings, which included fragments from various sources, literary, journalistic, folklore, etc. a presentation “from the very beginning,” from the creation of the world, and the genealogical lines of the ruling dynasties are traced back to mythical heroes or even to the gods.
permeated with a single patriotic idea: a story about great beginnings: the beginning of Russian statehood, the beginning of Russian culture, about the beginnings that, according to the chroniclers, promise future power and glory for their homeland. plot stories are common.
the chronicle is full of analogies and broad historical perspectives. Therefore, the chronicle talks about the main characters of this historical mystery - kings, princes, governors and the main functions corresponding to their position in society. The prince is depicted primarily at the most central moments of his activity - upon accession to the throne, during battles or diplomatic actions; the death of the prince is a kind of result of his activity, and the chronicler seeks to express this result in a ceremonial posthumous obituary, which lists the valor and glorious deeds of the prince, and precisely those of his virtues that befit him as a prince and a Christian. The ceremonial nature of the image requires adherence to etiquette of verbal expression
Almost all chronicles of subsequent centuries began with the “Tale”.
10. " The Word about Igor's Campaign" and its era. Ideological content works.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and monuments of ancient Russian literature. influenced other monuments of ancient Russian literature on the story of the Battle of Kulikovo - “Zadonshchina”. It was the custom of medieval scribes to imitate another work, quote or retell it. on "The Tale of Akira the Wise".
The debate about the authenticity of the monument or the time of its creation occupies a significant place.
Distrust in the antiquity of the Lay arose after the destruction of the manuscript in a fire in 1812. The Lay seemed unnaturally perfect for the level of artistic culture of Kievan Rus. “dark places” of the “Words”, the abundance of incomprehensible words in it, which at first they tried to explain using the material of other Slavic languages.
The historical basis of the plot of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Let us consider the events of 1185 as they appear to us according to the chronicle story.
The ideological content of the "Word". The author of the Lay persistently emphasizes the main idea of the work: the unity of the princes is necessary in the struggle among the steppes, it is necessary to stop strife and “which” - wars between individual feudal lords, into which the warring parties also dragged the Polovtsians. objects to civil strife, encroachments on foreign lands, convinces the princes of the need to live in peace and unconditionally obey the eldest in position - the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The author discusses them, evaluates them, considers them against the background of a broad historical perspective, almost against the background of the entire Russian history. It is these genre features of “The Lay” that determine the originality of its composition and the system of its images.
11. Artistic originality of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (genre, composition, system of images).
“Composition “Words”. introduction - a memory of the singer Boyan. A chronological range has been defined (“from old Vladimer to present-day Igor”), the author talks about Igor’s daring plan to “send” his regiments to the Polovtsian land, “to drink the sack of the Don.” the meeting of Igor and Bui Tur Vsevolod, a contrast with the subsequent story about the terrible signs that marked the beginning of Igor’s campaign and which foreshadowed its tragic outcome: this is a solar eclipse, and unusual ominous sounds in the silence of the night. The story about the second battle, fatal for Igor, is interrupted by the author's digression - a memory of the times of Oleg Svyatoslavich - the theme of disastrous civil strife, because of which the prosperity of all Russians is perishing. Igor’s battle against the Polovtsian, the consequences of Igor’s defeat will affect Rus'. Nature itself mourns the defeat of Igor. The insertion about the troubles of the entire Russian land suggests that the Russian princes themselves are to blame for them, who began to commit sedition on themselves. Only in the unification of all Russian forces against the nomads is the guarantee of victory, and an example of this is the defeat that Svyatoslav of Kiev inflicted on the Polovtsians, when the Polovtsian Khan Kobyak was captured and “fell” “in the grid of Svyatoslavli.” prophetic dream Svyatoslav, predicting grief and death for him. Insert about the time of Vseslav of Polotsk. He also did not achieve victory, despite temporary successes. In Putivl, Yaroslavna prays to the forces of nature to help her husband, to rescue him from captivity. It is characteristic that in this lyrical lament, modeled on folk lamentation, the social motives characteristic of the entire monument are heard: Yaroslavna cares not only about her husband, but also about his “howls”; she remembers the glorious campaigns of Svyatoslav of Kiev against Khan Kobyak. Yaroslavna's cry is closely connected with the subsequent story about Igor's escape from captivity. Nature helps Igor: the Donets River talks with the prince in a friendly manner, crows, jackdaws and magpies fall silent so as not to reveal to their pursuers the whereabouts of the fugitives, woodpeckers show them the way, and nightingales delight them with songs. The dispute between the khans Konchak and Gza about what to do with Igor’s captive son Vladimir is continued by this story, full of symbols taken from the world of living nature, about the flight of the prince: Igor flies as a “falcon” to his homeland, and the khans decide the fate of the “falcon”. two types of metaphors - military symbols ("falcon" - a daring warrior) and folklore symbols, in this case - going back to the symbolism of wedding songs, where the groom is a "falcon" and the bride is a "red girl", "swan". The epilogue of the Lay is festive and solemn: Igor, who has returned to Rus', comes to Kyiv, to the great Svyatoslav; “Countries are happy, the city is happy.” The Lay ends with a toast in honor of the prince.
Genre "Words". the focus is on reasoning, assessing Igor’s actions, thinking about the reasons for the “toughness” and sadness that has gripped the entire Russian land in the present, turning to the events of the past with its victories and misfortunes. “The Word” (like a number of other monuments) appears to be outside the genre system. A. N. Robinson and D. S. Likhachev compare it with the genre of the so-called “chanson de gesture” - “songs about exploits”, analogies of “The Song of Roland” or other similar works of Western European feudal epic. The Lay combines epic and bookish principles. “The epic is full of calls for the defense of the country...” writes D. S. Likhachev. “His “direction” is characteristic: the call comes as if from the people (hence the folkloric origin), but it is addressed to the feudal lords - the golden word of Svyatoslav, and hence the bookish origin.”
Poetics of the Word. features of the epic and monumental historicism style. events, and actions, and the very qualities of the heroes of “The Lay” are assessed against the background of the entire Russian history, against the background of events not only of the 12th, but also of the 11th century, the ceremoniality, etiquette of “The Lay” (as glory and lament). And the princes themselves in the Lay are depicted in ceremonial positions. The capture of Igor is reported as a ceremonial event: the prince is transferred from the golden princely saddle to the saddle of a slave (koshcheevo). the author's digressions, historical excursions, in which the main idea of the Lay usually stands out most clearly - condemnation of princely strife, reflection on the sorrows of the Russian land, subject to Polovtsian raids.
Epicness coexists with bookish elements. Author's thoughts, appeals, folklore elements. hyperbolization typical of folklore; images of a battle-feast, a battlefield identified with peaceful arable land, and images of a wolf, aurochs, and falcons, with which the heroes of “The Lay” are compared, are also folklore; epithets. Plans for a realistic (historical-documentary) depiction of characters and events and a description of the fantasy world of forces hostile to the “Russians.” Many episodes of The Lay have symbolic overtones. there is no static landscape. It was noted that “the artistic system of the Lay is entirely built on contrasts.” One of these contrasts is the opposition of metaphoric images: the sun (light) and darkness (night, darkness). Igor is the “bright light”, and Konchak is the “black raven”; on the eve of the battle, black clouds are coming from the sea, wanting to cover the 4 suns. In a prophetic dream, Svyatoslav sees that he is covered with “black papoloma” (as the body of a dead person was usually covered), blue (black) wine was poured on him, and “beaded (gray) lies” were croaked all night. But when Igor returns from captivity to Rus', “the sun shines in the sky” again.
The rhythm of the "Word". the rhythm is deliberate, part of the author’s artistic goals, but this is rhythmic prose; Moreover, rhythmic fragments in the “Word” alternate with fragments in which the rhythm is either different or absent altogether. repetitions of similar syntactic constructions, and “rhythmic balance,” when “several short syntactic units are replaced by one or two long ones; several long ones are concluded by one or two short ones.” The peculiarity of the language is “to combine similar-sounding words”, to resort to a kind of sound writing (see, for example: “moaning at night; trampling the filthy Polovtsian regiments... across the field; grinding them tight; trampling... the dew”).
12. The patericon genre in ancient Russian literature. Kiev-Pechersk Patericon.
Patericon (a fatherly book, an old man's book, a genre of ascetic literature, a collection of sayings of the holy fathers of ascetics or stories about them.) The literature of patericons develops in the 4th-5th centuries, when three collections appear that are included in the main fund of Christian literature: the so-called alphabetic patericon, in which in alphabetical order (by the names of the saints from St. Anthony to St. Orus) the sayings of the elders are collected (in the Greek tradition the book is called Αποφθέγματα των άγίων γερόντων - “sayings of the holy elders”), the Egyptian patericon or “History of the monks in E.” Hypto" (Historia Monachorum in Aegypto ), containing short stories about Egyptian anchorites, their parables and aphorisms, and Lavsaik (Greek Λαυσαϊχόν, Historia Lausiaca), a story about the Egyptian monks of Palladius, Bishop of Elenopolis, written by him at the request of the Byzantine dignitary Lavs (the significance of the last book is evidenced by the fact that stories from it are read in Orthodox services at matins throughout Lent). a collection of stories about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and the lives of its first inhabitants. The basis was two messages written in the 13th century. The first was written by the former monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, later the Bishop of Vladimir and Suzdal Simon (died in 1226) to his student and friend the Kiev-Pechersk monk Polycarp; The purpose of this message is to teach Polycarp Christian humility and meekness by narrating the wonderful life of the ascetics who glorified the Pechersk monastery. The second was written by the Kiev-Pechersk monk Polycarp to the Kiev-Pechersk Archimandrite Akindinus and also consists of stories about the monks of the monastery. Later, legends about the beginning of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, about the decoration of the monastery, about the first ascetics, as well as articles related to the subject of the “Paterikon”, and sometimes without any connection with it, were added to these messages. Here you can find Theodosius’ answer to Grand Duke Izyaslav’s question about the Latins, legends about the origin and initial state of the Russian Church, the baptism of the Slavs, etc. Historians find in the Patericon information about economic, social and cultural relations in Kievan Rus, animistic ideas of those times when pagan beliefs coexisted with Christianity. “Paterik” was edited many times; the oldest list dates back to the 15th century, the latest to the 17th century. The oldest lists: Arsenyevsky, compiled in 1406 for the Tver bishop Arseny, contains stories about saints and Simon’s story about the creation of the Pechersk Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary (“The Sermon on the Creation of the Pechersk Church”); two of Cassian’s, compiled in 1460 and 1462 on behalf of the Kiev-Pechersk clergy member, later the guide, monk Cassian; contain the entire writings of Simon and Polycarp and the story of the creation of the church, which is divided into two parts: the first - about the church, placed at the beginning of the Patericon; the second (about the binding of the shrine of Theodosius) after the life of St. Feodosia. In 1635, the printed “Paterik” was published, edited by Sylvester Kossov, in Polish; The appendix of this edition includes the lives of Nestor, Simon and Polycarp. In 1661, the first Church Slavonic edition was published (initiated by Archimandrite Innocent (Gisel)). In 1759, a new edition was published in the Moscow Synodal Printing House, thoroughly revised and checked in accordance with the teachings of the Orthodox Church (the rector of the Novgorod Seminary, Archimandrite Joasaph (Mitkevich) participated in the editing); subsequently it was reprinted several times. Separate parts of the Patericon were translated into Russian. In 1870, a Russian translation by M. A. Viktorova was published.
13. Military stories of the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
The first clash between Russians and Tatars occurred in 1223 in the south, on the Kalka River, when the Russians, united with the Polovtsians, were defeated by the Tatar army. In connection with this defeat, between 1223 and 1237, a story arose within Kyiv. We are especially curious about the later versions of the story about the Battle of Kalka with mention of the death of Alexander Popovich with seventy brave princes, or Alexander Popovich, his servant Toropets, Dobrynya Ryazanich - the Golden Belt and seventy great and brave heroes. This mention of Alexander Popovich is in direct connection with the epic about the death of Russian heroes, including Alexander Popovich and Dobrynya. "The story of the Battle of Kalka, having undoubtedly arisen among the druzhina, was subjected to editorial processing in the chronicle collections by the compilers of the collections who belonged to majority to the spiritual environment, and after that reflected those repentant and pious motives that characterize, among other things, the sermon of that time. These motives, interspersed with quotations from the “holy scripture,” sound even more strongly in the description of the devastation of northern Russia by the Tatars, mainly Suzdal land and the city of Vladimir, read in the Laurentian Chronicle under 1237. Using a quotation from the Psalter, the author exclaims: “God, the pagans have come upon your heritage, desecrated your holy church, laid Jerusalem as a vegetable storehouse, laid the corpses of your servant for the birds heavenly, the flesh of your saints as an earthly beast, shedding their blood like water." In connection with Batu's devastation in the same year, 1237, the Ryazan land was created (perhaps soon after this event) a story about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu, which is preceded by a story about transfer of the icon of St. Nicholas by priest Eustathius from Korsun to Ryazan. It is known in texts only from the 16th century. and is read in later chronicles and in some collections. It is undoubtedly based on epic tales, oral poetic works related to the event itself. The episode of the death of Fyodor and his wife Eupraxia, reflected in the epic about Danil Lovchanin, as well as the story about Evpatiy Kolovrat, obviously go back to special folk historical songs. The phraseology of the story is also connected with the poetics of oral folk art in those cases when the valor of the Ryazan people is depicted: “gentle squad”, “rezvetsy”, “daring people”, “rezansky pattern and education”, “rezansky domination”, “strong governors”. Throughout the tone of the story, ideal ideas about the chivalric relationship between the prince and the squad strongly make themselves felt. The princes invariably care about their squad and mourn the warriors who died in battle, but the squad wants to “drink the mortal cup with their sovereigns equally.” Inspired by devotion to their princes, the “daring men and spirited men of Rezan” fight “strongly and mercilessly, as if the earth were groaning,” “one with a thousand, two with you,” and when they are unable to defeat the enemy, every single one of them dies, having drunk the one mortal cup. The story lacks that repentant tone that we noted in previous monuments written on the topic of the Tatar invasion. The story calls not for passive submission to a terrible disaster, but for an active struggle against it. And its end is cheerful and confident. The Ryazan land is recovering from Batu’s invasion and is being rebuilt, the Ryazan people rejoice at their liberation from the “godless, evil Tsar Batu.” Clear signs of the story's rhythmic structure have already been partially noted above. They can also be traced in other samples. When the Tatars captured Ryazan, they Grand Duchess Agripena, the mother of the Grand Duke, cut off swords with her daughters-in-law and other princesses, and gave the bishop and the priestly rank to fire, burned them in the holy church, and a lot of frost fell from weapons, and in the city of many people, both wives and children, cut off swords, and I drowned some in the river, and cut down the erey, the monk to the remains, and burned the whole city, and all the deliberate ornaments, the wealth of the river , and their relatives, Kiev and Chernigov, captured, and destroyed the temples of God, and shed a lot of blood in the holy altars. About the princes and warriors who died in defense of Ryazan, it is said: their bodies are devoured by beasts and torn to pieces by many birds. All the noted features of the story about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu make us highly regard it as a monument to our early narrative literature of the military genre, giving it almost second place after “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
14. “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” in the process of genre formation in the 13th century.
Among the Northern Russian monuments associated with the invasion of the Tatars is “The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land,” found by Kh. M. Loparev in the early 1890s in a 15th-century manuscript. Pskov Pechersky Monastery and published by him at the same time." It is small in volume (in the manuscript it takes up 45 lines). The "Lay" lists the natural and material wealth that, before the Tatar invasion, abounded in the "light-bright and ornately decorated Russian land." There were then in Russia there were formidable princes, honest boyars, many nobles. Large spaces and the peoples living on them were conquered by the Grand Duke Vsevolod, his father Yuri, the Prince of Kiev, his grandfather Vladimir Monomakh, in whose name the Polovtsy frightened children in the cradle and under whom the Lithuanians from their the swamps did not appear, and the Hungarians fortified their stone cities with iron gates so that he would not enter them through them; the Germans rejoiced, living far beyond the blue sea. Various neighboring tribes paid tribute to Vladimir with honey, and the Byzantine king Manuel, fearing how "If Vladimir had not taken Constantinople, he would have sent him great gifts. This was the case before, but now illness has befallen Christians. This is the content of this outstanding monument, imbued with a feeling of deep patriotism, pride in the past of the Russian land and grief over its disasters caused to it by the Tatars. Following it comes the life of Alexander Nevsky, which does not have a special title here and is not even separated from the text of “The Tale of Perdition” by a special line. “The Word of Perdition” was the first part of the trilogy that has not been completely preserved. N.I. Serebryansky assumed that “The Lay of Destruction” is a preface to the secular biography of Alexander Nevsky that has not reached us, written by one of the prince’s warriors and appeared shortly after his death. “However, the “Lay” can hardly be considered the original introduction to the secular biography of Alexander Nevsky or to his church life. The artistic style of “The Lay of Perdition” is a combination of book style with oral poetic forms of song speech. The book style is reflected mainly in the listing of the riches that abound in the Russian land, and in the composition of the epithets. From there it comes epic image of Vladimir Monomakh. “The Word of Perdition” had a great influence on the introductory part of one of the editions of the life of Prince Fyodor of Yaroslavl, which arose at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries under the pen of Andrei Yuryev, but here this introductory part adjoins the life of Fyodor much more organically, than “The Word of Perdition” to the life of Alexander Nevsky.
The Life of Alexander Nevsky, especially famous for his valiant victory over the German knights, written at the end of the 13th or at the very beginning of the 14th century. Judging by the similarity of the literary style of the life of Alexander Nevsky with the literary style of the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle (see below) and the “Deeds of Devgenia”, translated, one must think, in the Galicia-Volyn land, the author of the life was a native of the Galicia-Volyn principality, who moved with Metropolitan Kirill III to the court of Alexander Nevsky." As we see, Alexander Nevsky is depicted in the life primarily as an ideal prince and warrior, endowed with all positive spiritual and physical qualities to the highest degree. He is likened more than once to the most outstanding biblical characters. Such an image of a prince could be most likely given by a person close to him, and this image was present, one must think, already in that secular biographical story about Alexander, which supposedly formed the basis of the most ancient life.The author of the life used in some cases a compilation Chronograph, consisting of biblical books, the Chronicle of George Amartol and John Malala, “Alexandria” and “The Tale of the Sacking of Jerusalem” by Josephus and included in the so-called Archive Collection, compiled in 1262, a year before the death of Alexander Nevsky. Individual episodes from his life could have arisen under the influence of “Devgeniy’s act.” A number of small episodes and stereotypical formulas in the life of Alexander Nevsky go back to hagiographic literature, original (The Legend of Boris and Gleb and parimies in honor of them, etc.) and partially translated, and to Russian chronicles
- 69.00 KbIntroduction
Translations constituted the most important part of ancient Slavic Russian literature, not only in terms of quantitative superiority, but also in terms of ideological significance. Monuments of translated writing connected the literature and culture of the feudal society of Ancient Rus' and the Slavic countries of the Middle Ages with their historical predecessor - the literature and culture of the ancient world: not only classical Greece and Rome and Christian Byzantium, but also the countries of the Ancient East - Egypt, Syria, Palestine. These monuments gave the Slavs and Russians the opportunity for historical self-determination, finding their place in the world historical process. They overwhelmingly determined the ideological basis of medieval culture and therefore connected the Slavic cultural world and Ancient Rus' with the cultural circles of the Christian peoples of the East and West. Translated writing enriched the mental horizons of the Slavic peoples, who joined the cultural circle of the peoples of the Mediterranean relatively late, with many abstract scientific and philosophical ideas and concepts that had not previously existed in the minds of our ancestors.
Through translated writing, Ancient Rus' inherited from Byzantium and antiquity the main examples of literary types and genres, which it then continued to develop on the basis of its own creativity. Thus, chronicle writing is genetically connected with Byzantine chronicles; with translated lives - works of the hagiographic genre, created in Kievan and Muscovite Rus'; with translated chants - Russian original hymnological creativity; with translated words and teachings of the “Church Fathers” - works of solemn eloquence created by Russian preachers - Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kyiv, Theodosius of Pechersk, Kirill of Turov.
- The originality of early translated monuments.
Translated literature, which poured into Russian literature in a wide stream in the 11th-12th centuries, contributed to the establishment of Christian ideology in literature, bringing with it a number of new genres: lives, sermons, various types of church chants, etc. These new genres also contributed to the establishment of Christianity . Finally, with translated literature, a number of ways of expressing this new ideology were transferred to Rus': in certain techniques of rhetorical art, in certain techniques of depicting the internal state of Christian ascetics
etc. Finally, translated literature contributed to the establishment of a number of images, symbols, and metaphors in Russian literature.
For the activities of the Christian church in Rus', liturgical books were needed first of all. The obligatory set of books that were necessary for worship in each individual church included the Gospel aprakos, the Apostle aprakos, the Missal, the Breviary, the Psalter, the Lenten Triodion, the Colored Triodion and the General Menaion.
These books were supposed to serve as a guide in accomplishing something quite complex by the beginning of the 11th century. Christian cult. From the 11th century We have come down to us in the Bulgarian translation of the monthly service Menaion (a collection of services in calendar order for the whole year), the Triodi (“fast” - texts of festive services before Easter and “colored” - texts of services after Easter), then service books and missals. In addition to the exclusively “business” part, these liturgical books contained texts of a literary and poetic nature - chants and readings, which constituted, so to speak, the artistic part of the liturgical ritual. These liturgical books could also be used for reading outside church and were used in teaching literacy (Book of Hours). In church chants - canons, stichera, kontakia, ikos of John of Damascus, Gregory of Nazianzus, Patriarch Sophronius - the connection with ancient and Hellenistic poetry, with the moods of ancient philosophical lyrics, has not yet been lost. Simple in theme (prayers for healing and protection, prayers of repentance, praise to saints and deities), church chants were very complex in their style and transferred into Russian literary use certain flowery expressions, rhyme (of the usual verbal type in Byzantium), rhythmic construction of prose, complex and sophisticated comparisons.
The main “corpus” of Christian doctrine - the Bible - was not yet fully translated in the 11th-12th centuries. Only that which met the immediate needs of the Christian cult was translated, or its historical parts for inclusion in large historical works of a consolidated nature - Explanatory Paley, etc. Nevertheless, the biblical books were quite well represented in translations - in full or in abbreviations.
If the transfer of liturgical books to Russian soil was dictated by the needs of church services, and their repertoire was regulated by the canon of liturgical practice, then in relation to other genres of Byzantine literature one can assume a certain selectivity.
But it is here that we encounter an interesting phenomenon, which D. S. Likhachev characterized as the phenomenon of “transplantation”: Byzantine literature in some of its genres not only influenced Slavic literature, and through it on Old Russian literature, but was, of course, in some way parts - simply transferred to Rus'.
First of all, this applies to Byzantine patristic literature. In Rus', the works of the “church fathers”, theologians and preachers were known and enjoyed high authority: John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, etc.
Homiletic writers (authors of teachings and sermons) were highly valued throughout the Russian Middle Ages. Their creations not only helped shape the moral ideals of the Christian world, but at the same time forced us to think about the properties of human character and drew attention to various features human psyche, influenced other literary genres with their experience of “human studies”.
Works of the homiletical genre did not hide their edifying, didactic function. Addressing readers and listeners directly, homiletic writers sought to convince them with the logic of their reasoning, extolled virtues and condemned vices, promised eternal bliss to the righteous, and threatened the careless and sinners with divine punishment.
Monuments of the hagiographic genre - the lives of saints - also educated and instructed, but the main means of persuasion was not so much the word - sometimes indignant and denouncing, sometimes insinuatingly instructive - as a living image. An action-packed narrative about the life of a righteous man, willingly using the plots and plot devices of the Hellenistic adventure novel, could not fail to interest the medieval reader. The hagiographer addressed not so much his mind as his feelings and ability for a vivid imagination. Therefore, the most fantastic episodes - the intervention of angels or demons, miracles performed by saints - were sometimes described with detailed details that helped the reader to see and imagine what was happening. Sometimes the Lives reported precise geographical or topographical features, and named the names of real historical figures - all this also created the illusion of authenticity and was intended to convince the reader of the veracity of the story and thereby give the Lives the authority of a “historical” narrative.
Patericons, collections of short stories about monks, were widely known in Kievan Rus. The themes of the patericon legends are quite traditional. Most often these are stories about monks who became famous for their asceticism or humility. The patericons depict a certain fantastic world where the forces of good and evil are constantly fighting for the souls of people, where the righteous are not just pious, but exaltedly fanatical, where miracles are performed in the most everyday situations, where even wild animals confirm the omnipotence of faith with their behavior. The subjects of translated patericons influenced the work of Russian scribes: in Russian patericons and lives we will find direct analogies to episodes from Byzantine patericons.
Apocrypha was also a favorite genre of ancient Russian readers, the oldest translations of which also date back to the Kievan era. Apocrypha (from the Greek ἀπόκρυφα - “secret, hidden”) were works that tell about biblical characters or saints, but were not included in the circle of monuments revered as sacred scripture or officially recognized by the church. There were apocryphal gospels (for example, “The Gospel of Thomas”, “The Gospel of Nicodemus”), lives (“The Life of Andrew the Fool", “The Life of Basil the New”), legends, prophecies, etc. The apocrypha often contained a more detailed account of events or characters mentioned in canonical biblical books. There were apocryphal stories about Adam and Eve (for example, about Adam’s second wife, Lilith, about the birds that taught Adam how to bury Abel), about the childhood of Moses (in particular, about the test of the wisdom of the boy Moses by Pharaoh), about the earthly life of Jesus Christ.
The attitude of the Orthodox Church towards apocryphal literature was complex. The most ancient indices (lists) of “true and false books,” in addition to “true” books, distinguished between “hidden” and “hidden” books, which were recommended to be read only by knowledgeable people, and “false” books, which were certainly forbidden to be read, since they contained heretical views . However, in practice, it was almost impossible to separate apocryphal stories from stories found in “true” books: apocryphal legends were reflected in monuments that enjoyed the highest authority: in chronicles, paleas, in collections used in worship (Solemnists, Menaions). Attitudes towards the apocrypha changed over time: some monuments that were popular in the past were subsequently banned and even destroyed, but, on the other hand, in the “Great Menaion of Cheti”, created in the 16th century. Orthodox churchmen included many texts previously considered apocryphal as a set of recommended reading literature.
Among the first translations carried out under Yaroslav the Wise or over the subsequent decades were also monuments of Byzantine chronography. Such as: the Chronicle of George Amartol, the Chronicle of John Malala, the History of the Jewish War by Josephus, Alexandria, the Tale of Akira the Wise, the Tale of Varlaam and Joasaph, the Deed of Devgenius.
- The ratio of translated and original.
The modern concept of translation is not always applicable to the so-called translated ancient Slavic literature. The ancient Slavic “translators,” and mainly scribes and sometimes even readers, constantly introduced additions and clarifications into these translations (in the margins of manuscripts), simplified or complicated the language, inserted entire pieces from other works, adapting the translations to the needs of contemporary reality. Sometimes ancient Slavic scribes rearranged the composition of translated works or created on their basis large consolidated compositions devoted to major topics: world history, Old Testament history, etc. “Translators” preferred to take into account the needs of readers, sometimes to a greater extent than to maintain closeness to the original.
Secular literature, primarily historical, was subject to even greater revisions. A careful study of various editions of Russian translations of Byzantine chronicles shows that these translations were immediately used for large Russian works of a consolidated nature on world and Russian history. Russian scribes persistently and persistently expanded the material of these chronicles with more and more new historical works, which were included in their composition for the most complete coverage of world history. At the same time, Russian translators and scribes shortened their rhetorical parts, threw out moral and philosophical reasoning, and gave the story greater efficiency. Thus, on the basis of translated material and partly Russian, an extensive summary work on world history was compiled in Rus' - the Greek and Roman Chronicler. The basis of its initial edition was the translated Byzantine chronicles - John Malala and George Amartol, as well as the translation of “Alexandria” by pseudo-Callisthenes. The second edition significantly revised this original text, supplementing it with a number of new sources - the Book of the Prophet Daniel with interpretations, the Life of Constantine and Helen, the story of the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, the Russian story of the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204, and fragments from Russian chronicles.
Of exceptional interest is the Russian translation of Josephus's History of the Jewish War. The Russian translator of the story everywhere emphasized ideas about military honor, about military glory, generously introduced Russian military terminology into it, in some places supplementing the translation with inserts calling for heroism, praising those who die on the battlefield, and cursing those “body lovers” who prefer to die of illness at home. The translation is distinguished by the high merits of the excellent Russian language.
Of course, not every translated work was subjected to such free alterations by translators and copyists. The works of authoritative authors (for example, the fathers of the church) changed relatively little: they were protected by respect for the name of the author, but, on the other hand, this same respect for the name of the author sometimes forced works that did not belong to him to be attributed to him (many original Russian sermons were attributed, for example , John Chrysostom). The attitude towards the text of liturgical and canonical books was very careful. Here the text was protected by fear of being accused of heresy.
However, no matter how uniform the demands of the Christian cult were in Byzantium, Bulgaria and Rus', Russian works clearly perceived the influence of Russian reality, served it, becoming Russian not only in content, but also in modifications of their form. In relation to the most ancient Russian lives, this is clearly shown by their expert - S. A. Bugoslavsky. To summarize big number of his observations on the most ancient Russian lives, S. A. Bugoslavsky wrote: “From the Byzantine lives, Russian authors of the 11th-12th centuries. borrowed only general trends. They understood that it was necessary to draw a type of ideal, Christian hero-saint, to surround his name with a traditional panegyric. It was impossible to make of the prince, whose military and political court activities were well known and described in other non-hagiographic articles of the same chronicle, an ideal righteous man according to the type of Byzantine lives, and this saved Russian hagiographers from blind imitation of Byzantine literary models. The Russian author inevitably faced the difficult task of reconciling the ideal images and stylistics of Byzantine hagiographies in his hagiographic experiments with a tendentious, lively journalistic presentation of contemporary events, and often with deep-rooted folk poetic motifs.
Short description
Through translated writing, Ancient Rus' inherited from Byzantium and antiquity the main examples of literary types and genres, which it then continued to develop on the basis own creativity. Thus, chronicle writing is genetically connected with Byzantine chronicles; with translated lives - works of the hagiographic genre, created in Kievan and Muscovite Rus'; with translated chants - Russian original hymnological creativity; with translated words and teachings of the “Church Fathers” - works of solemn eloquence created by Russian preachers - Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kyiv, Theodosius of Pechersk, Kirill of Turov.
In connection with the adoption of Christianity, translation activity developed in Kyiv, reaching its peak in the 30-40s of the 11th century, as evidenced by the “Tale of Bygone Years” under the year 1037. In accordance with the demands of the time, first of all, liturgical books, collections of lives, works of the “church fathers,” church historical and natural science works were translated. However, Russian translators did not ignore secular literature, which, by the nature of its ideological and artistic content, corresponded to the spirit of the times. Old Russian scribes translated a number of military, historical and didactic stories from Greek, which helped strengthen the secular ideal that the original literature promoted. The translators did not set out to accurately convey the original, but sought to bring it as close as possible to the needs of their time and their environment. Therefore, translated works were subject to editorial editing - a well-known Russification. They were translated into Old Russian in the 11th century historical chronicles John Malala of Antioch, George Sincellus, George Amartol, who outlined the events of world and Byzantine history from a Christian point of view. The chronicle of John Malala (VI century) was predominantly secular in nature and included many pagan mythological stories. Therefore, obviously, she was not popular in Rus'. The chronicle of George Sincellus (8th century) brought the narrative only to the Emperor Diocletian (3rd century) and also did not receive wide circulation. The chronicle of George Amartol, created in the 9th century, was popular. and supplemented by Simon Logothetes in the 10th century. In this chronicle, the church-didactic point of view on historical events prevailed, the presentation of which was completed until 948. The materials of this chronicle served not only as edifying reading, they introduced events of world history, and enabled Russian chroniclers to more correctly understand the place of the Russian land in the historical destinies of the world.
A kind of medieval “natural science” encyclopedia was "Six Days" And "Physiologist". Six-day stories were very popular in medieval Christian literature, commenting on the short biblical story about God’s creation of the sky, stars, luminaries, earth, living beings, plants and humans within six days. This is a kind of collection of information about living and inanimate nature that science had at its disposal at that time. In Rus', the “Six Days” of John, Exarch of the Bulgarian, the “Six Days” of Severian of Gevalsky and the “Six Days” of George Pisida were known. “The Six Days” of John is a compilative work, but using many sources, the author supplemented his work with his own reasoning. The work consists of a prologue and six “words” that tell about the heavenly bodies, the Earth, atmospheric phenomena, animals, plants and humans. All this information, reflecting the natural scientific ideas of the time, sometimes frankly fantastic, is permeated with the same idea: admiration for the wisdom of God, who created such a beautiful, diverse, intelligently structured world. “The Physiologist” is dedicated to the description of animals, both real and fantastic. . At the same time, the interpretation was given in the spirit of the Christian worldview. The described properties of animals were explained as a certain state of the human soul. Each story reported the properties of a creature or object, and then gave a symbolic interpretation of these properties.
The Russian people became familiar with the structure of the universe from the “Christian Topography of Kozma Indikoplov (navigator to India).” Based on Holy Scripture, Kozma argued that the earth is a plane washed on all sides by the ocean. At the corners there is a wall of mountains to which the visible sky is attached. The luminaries move across this sky: the sun, the moon, the stars. Their movement is controlled by special angels who monitor the correct change of day and night. There are seven heavens in total, and in the seventh heaven, invisible, the Lord God himself dwells.
At the end of the 12th century, a collection of sayings was compiled "Bee".
The selection of works to be translated into Old Russian was determined by the needs of the upper echelons of feudal society. The tasks of strengthening Christian morality and the new religion were in the foreground, and this determined the predominance of church translated literature over secular literature. These same objectives determined the choice of secular narrative literature, which in turn contributed to the development of a secular ideal.
The story was very popular "Alexandria", dedicated to the life and exploits of the famous ancient commander Alexander the Great. This story, created after the death of Alexander (died in 323 BC), was attributed to the pen of Aristotle's student, Callisthenes. But Callisthenes died before Alexander, so this ancient edition is called pseudo-Callisthenes. The story was translated into Old Russian in the 11th-12th centuries. The story was perceived as purely historical, dedicated to describing the life and work of a real historical figure. She talked about his extraordinary birth, his exploits, military valor, the conquest of lands replete with all sorts of miracles, about his early death and painted Alexander as a hero endowed with great intelligence, wisdom, a thirst for knowledge and extraordinary physical and mental qualities.
The image of a courageous Christian warrior, defender of the borders of his state, is at the center of the translated story "Devgenie's act". The story consists of two independent parts, the first tells about Devgeny’s parents: his father is the Arabian king Amir, and his mother is Greek, kidnapped by Amir, but rescued by her brothers. She marries Amir after he converts to Christianity. The second part is devoted to a description of the exploits of Devgeny. Devgeny is portrayed as a beautiful young man who has been distinguished by his extraordinary strength since childhood. In a hyperbolic, purely epic plan, the courage, strength, and bravery of young Devgeny are emphasized. The story also contains a motif of snake fighting, characteristic of folklore: Devgeny defeats a four-headed snake. Like the heroes of a Russian fairy tale, Devgeny gets himself a bride - the beautiful Stratigovna, and defeats her father and brothers. At the same time, Devgeny is a pious Christian hero: he wins all his victories thanks to his constant trust in God and God's power.
In the XI - XII centuries. was translated into Old Russian language "History of the Jewish War" famous Jewish historian Josephus called “ The Tale of the Sacking of Jerusalem" The story covers a wide range of events - from 167 BC. to 72 AD The central place is occupied by the description of the struggle of the rebel Jewish people against the Roman legions. The translation widely uses stylistic formulas of military stories that are absent in the Greek original. In general, the translators made their own additions, which included insertions about Jesus Christ and John the Baptist, sharp attacks against the Romans and a negative characterization of Herod the Great. The Old Russian reader was attracted to the story by its historicism (it was, as it were, a continuation of the Bible) and colorful descriptions of military events.
The popularity of “History” was very great, and not only because it told about one of the important events of world history: full of military episodes, it was in tune with the Russian reader, who himself had repeatedly experienced the hardships of wars and enemy invasions.
The means of promoting the new Christian morality were didactic translated stories, which include "The Tale of Akira the Wise"" And "The Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph."
“The Tale of Akira the Wise” is a Syrian story. The central place in the story is occupied by the image of the king’s ideal adviser, the wise and virtuous Akira. His activities are subordinated to concerns for the good of his state. The main part consists of moral teachings - these are small parables ending with aphorisms. In the Russian translation, the story was adapted to the usual forms of Christian moral literature. The moralizing parables and aphorisms of the story gradually acquired independent meaning and were included in the collection “The Bee”, becoming proverbs.
The “Tale” tells how Akir, adviser to the king of the Ador and Naliv countries (i.e. Assyria and Nineveh) Sinagrip, by divine direction, adopts his nephew Anadan. He raised and educated him, taught him all the wisdom and, finally, introduced him to the king as his student and successor. However, Anadan begins to rampage in Akir’s house, and when he tries to curb him, he carries out an insidious plan: having forged Akir’s handwriting, Anadan composes forged letters that will convince Synagrip that Akir is plotting high treason. The king is shocked by the imaginary betrayal of his adviser, and Akir, out of surprise, cannot justify himself and only manages to ask permission so that the death sentence passed on him at Anadan’s insistence will be carried out by his old friend. Akira manages to convince his friend of his innocence, the friend executes the criminal instead of Akira, and hides Akira himself in a dungeon.
The Egyptian pharaoh, having heard about the execution of Akir, sends envoys to Synagripus demanding that one of his entourage build a house between heaven and earth. Synagripus is in despair: Anadan, whom he was counting on, refuses to help, saying that only a god can complete this task. Then Akira's friend informs the king that the disgraced adviser is alive. The king sends Akir to Egypt, where he solves all the ingenious riddles that the pharaoh offers him. Akir forces the pharaoh to abandon the demand to build a house: the eagles trained by Akir lift into the sky a boy who asks to give him stones and lime, but the Egyptians, naturally, cannot do this. Having received tribute for three years, Akir returns to Synagrip, chains Anadan at the porch of his house and begins to reproach him for the evil he has done. In vain Anadan begs for forgiveness. Unable to withstand Akira’s stinging reproaches, he swells “like a jug” and bursts with anger.
This story is interesting as an action-packed work, where treachery is exposed and truth and justice triumph.
“The Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph” glorifies the victory of Christianity over paganism. The story recalled recent events associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia and served as a means of combating the remnants of paganism. The story convinces (in the person of Varlaam) of the truth of the Christian doctrine. The hero of the story is the son of the Indian king Abner, Joasaph, who is convinced of the vanity of a fleeting earthly life. He begins to think about the question - “is there another life.” The hermit Barlaam helps Joasaph resolve this issue. He preaches Christian teaching to Joasaph and baptizes him. Avenir's attempts to turn his son away from the new faith end in failure, and Avenir himself is forced to admit that his son is right and accept Christianity.
If “The Tale of Akira the Wise” resembles a fairy tale in many of its elements, then “The Tale of Varlaam and Joasaph” is closely related to the hagiographic genre, although in fact its plot is based on the legendary biography of Buddha, which came to Rus' through Byzantine media.
2. Translated literature of the 11th–12th centuries
As the chronicle reports, immediately after Russia adopted Christianity, Vladimir Svyatoslavich “began to take children from deliberate children [of noble people], and began to give them book learning” (PVL, p. 81). For education, books brought from Bulgaria were needed. Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) and Old Russian languages are so close that Rus' was able to use a ready-made Old Church Slavonic alphabet, and Bulgarian books, being formally foreign languages, essentially did not require translation. This greatly facilitated the acquaintance of Rus' with the monuments of Byzantine literature, which for the most part penetrated into Rus' in Bulgarian translation.
Later, during the time of Yaroslav the Wise, in Rus' they began to translate directly from Greek. The chronicle reports that Yaroslav collected “many scribes and translations from Greek to Slovenian writing. And I copied many books” (PVL, p. 102). Intensity translation activities is confirmed both by direct data (lists of translated monuments that have come down to us or references to them in original works), and indirect: the influx of translated literature at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century. was not only a consequence of the established cultural ties between Rus' and Bulgaria or Byzantium, but was primarily caused by an urgent need, a kind of state necessity: Rus', which had adopted Christianity, needed literature for worship, to become familiar with the philosophical and ethical doctrines of the new religion, the ritual and legal customs of the church and monastic life.
For the activities of the Christian church in Rus', liturgical books were needed first of all. The obligatory set of books that were necessary for worship in each individual church included the Gospel aprakos, the Apostle aprakos, the Missal, the Breviary, the Psalter, the Lenten Triodion, the Colored Triodion and the General Menaion. Considering that in the chronicles in the narration of the events of the 9th–11th centuries. 88 cities are mentioned (data from B.V. Sapunov), each of which had from several units to several dozen churches, then the number of books necessary for their functioning will be in the many hundreds. Only a few copies of manuscripts from the 11th–12th centuries have reached us, but they confirm our ideas about the above-mentioned repertoire of liturgical books.
If the transfer of liturgical books to Russian soil was dictated by the needs of church services, and their repertoire was regulated by the canon of liturgical practice, then in relation to other genres of Byzantine literature one can assume a certain selectivity.
But it is here that we encounter an interesting phenomenon, which D. S. Likhachev characterized as the phenomenon of “transplantation”: Byzantine literature in its individual genres not only influenced Slavic literature, and through it on Old Russian literature, but was - of course, in some way its part was simply transferred to Rus'.
Patristics. First of all, this applies to Byzantine patristic literature. In Rus', the works of the “church fathers”, theologians and preachers were known and enjoyed high authority: John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, etc.
Homiletic writers (authors of teachings and sermons) were highly valued throughout the Russian Middle Ages. Their creations not only helped to shape the moral ideals of the Christian world, but at the same time made them think about the properties of human character, drew attention to various features of the human psyche, and influenced other literary genres with their experience of “human studies.”
Of the homiletic writers, John Chrysostom (d. 407) enjoyed the greatest authority. In his work, “the assimilation of the traditions of ancient culture by the Christian Church reached complete and classical completion. He developed a style of preaching prose that absorbed the countless richness of expressive techniques of rhetoric and brought the virtuosity of finishing to stunning expressiveness.” The teachings of John Chrysostom have been included in collections since the 11th century. From the 12th century The list “Zlatostruya” has been preserved, containing mainly the “words” of Chrysostom; several “words” were included in the famous Assumption collection at the turn of the 12th–13th centuries.
In the lists of the 11th–12th centuries. translations of other Byzantine homilets have also been preserved - Gregory the Theologian, Cyril of Jerusalem, “The Ladder” of John Climacus, Pandects of Antiochus and Pandects of Nikon the Montenegrin. The sayings and aphorisms of the “Church Fathers” (along with aphorisms extracted from the works of ancient authors) made up a popular collection in Ancient Rus' - “The Bee” (the oldest list of the turn of the 13th–14th centuries). In the "Izbornik 1076" A significant place is occupied by Gennady’s “Stoslovets” - a kind of “moral code” of a Christian.
Works of the homiletical genre did not hide their edifying, didactic function. Addressing readers and listeners directly, homiletic writers sought to convince them with the logic of their reasoning, extolled virtues and condemned vices, promised eternal bliss to the righteous, and threatened the careless and sinners with divine punishment.
Lives of the Saints. Monuments of the hagiographic genre - the lives of saints - also educated and instructed, but the main means of persuasion was not so much the word - sometimes indignant and denouncing, sometimes insinuatingly instructive - as a living image. An action-packed narrative about the life of a righteous man, willingly using the plots and plot devices of the Hellenistic adventure novel, could not fail to interest the medieval reader. The hagiographer addressed not so much his mind as his feelings and ability for a vivid imagination. Therefore, the most fantastic episodes - the intervention of angels or demons, miracles performed by saints - were sometimes described with detailed details that helped the reader to see and imagine what was happening. Sometimes the lives reported precise geographical or topographical signs, and named the names of real historical figures- all this also created the illusion of authenticity, it was intended to convince the reader of the veracity of the story and thereby give the lives the authority of a “historical” narrative.
The lives can be roughly divided into two plot types - martyrium lives, i.e. stories about the torment of fighters for the faith in pagan times, and lives that told about saints who voluntarily took on the feat of seclusion or foolishness, distinguished by extraordinary piety and love of poverty etc.
An example of the first type of life is the “Life of St. Irene.” It tells how Irina’s father, the pagan king Licinius, at the instigation of a demon, decides to destroy his Christian daughter; according to his sentence, she should be crushed by the chariot, but a miracle happens: the horse, breaking the traces, pounces on the king, bites off his hand and returns to the old place. Irina is subjected to various sophisticated tortures by King Zedeki, but each time, thanks to divine intercession, she remains alive and unharmed. The princess is thrown into a ditch infested with poisonous snakes, but the “reptiles” immediately “press” against the walls of the ditch and die. They try to saw the saint alive, but the saw breaks and the executioners die. She is tied to a mill wheel, but water “by the command of God flows around,” etc.
Another type of life includes, for example, the legend of Alexei the Man of God. Alexey, a pious and virtuous young man, voluntarily renounces wealth, honor, female love. He leaves the house of his father - a rich Roman nobleman, his beautiful wife, as soon as he has married her, distributes the money taken from the house to the poor and for seventeen years lives on alms in the vestibule of the Church of the Virgin Mary in Edessa. When the fame of his holiness spread everywhere, Alexei left Edessa and, after wanderings, found himself again in Rome. Unrecognized by anyone, he settles in his father’s house, feeds at the same table with the beggars, whom the pious nobleman gives alms every day, and patiently endures the bullying and beatings of his father’s servants. Another seventeen years pass. Alexei dies, and only then do the parents and widow recognize their missing son and husband.
Patericon. Patericons - collections of short stories about monks - were widely known in Kievan Rus. The themes of the patericon legends are quite traditional. Most often these are stories about monks who became famous for their asceticism or humility. Thus, one legend tells how elders come to a hermit to talk with him, thirsting for instruction from him. But the recluse is silent, and when asked about the reason for his silence, he replies that day and night he sees before him the image of the crucified Christ. “This is our best instruction!” - the elders exclaim.
The hero of another story is a stylite. He is so alien to pride that he even lays out alms for the poor on the steps of his shelter, and does not give them from hand to hand, claiming that it is not he, but the Mother of God who gives gifts to the suffering.
The patericon tells of a young nun who gouges out her eyes after learning that their beauty has aroused the lust of a young man.
The omnipotence of prayer and the ability of ascetics to perform miracles are the subjects of another group of patericon short stories. The righteous elder is accused of adultery, but through his prayer the twelve-day-old baby, when asked “who is his father,” points his finger at his real father. Through the prayer of a pious shipbuilder, rain pours over the deck on a hot day, delighting travelers suffering from the heat and thirst. A lion, having met a monk on a narrow mountain path, stands on its hind legs to give him way, etc.
If the righteous are accompanied by divine help, then sinners in the patericon legends face a terrible and, what is especially characteristic, not posthumous, but immediate punishment: the desecrator of graves has his eyes gouged out by a living dead; the ship does not move from its place until a female child killer steps into the boat from its side, and the boat with the sinner is immediately swallowed up by the abyss; the servant, who plans to kill and rob his mistress, cannot leave his place and stabs himself to death.
Thus, in the patericon a certain fantastic world is depicted, where the forces of good and evil are constantly fighting for the souls of people, where the righteous are not just pious, but exaltedly fanatical, where miracles are performed in the most everyday situations, where even wild animals confirm the omnipotence of faith with their behavior. The subjects of translated patericons influenced the work of Russian scribes: in Russian patericons and lives we will find direct analogies to episodes from Byzantine patericons.
Apocrypha. Apocrypha was also a favorite genre of ancient Russian readers, the oldest translations of which also date back to the Kievan era. Apocrypha (from the Greek ?????????? - “secret, hidden”) were works that tell about biblical characters or saints, but were not included in the circle of monuments revered as sacred scripture or officially recognized by the church. There were apocryphal gospels (for example, “The Gospel of Thomas”, “The Gospel of Nicodemus”), lives (“The Life of Andrew the Fool", “The Life of Basil the New”), legends, prophecies, etc. The apocrypha often contained a more detailed account of events or characters mentioned in canonical biblical books. There were apocryphal stories about Adam and Eve (for example, about Adam’s second wife, Lilith, about the birds that taught Adam how to bury Abel), about the childhood of Moses (in particular, about the test of the wisdom of the boy Moses by Pharaoh), about the earthly life of Jesus Christ.
The apocryphal “Walking of the Mother of God through the Torment” describes the suffering of sinners in hell, the “Tale of Agapius” tells of paradise - a wonderful garden, where “a bed and a meal decorated with precious stones” are prepared for the righteous, birds sing around “with different voices”, and the plumage they have gold, and scarlet, and scarlet, and blue, and green...
Apocrypha often reflected heretical ideas about the present and future world and rose to complex philosophical problems. The apocrypha reflected the teaching according to which God is opposed by an equally powerful antipode - Satan, the source of evil and the culprit of human disasters; Thus, according to one apocryphal legend, the human body was created by Satan, and God only “put” the soul into it.
The attitude of the Orthodox Church towards apocryphal literature was complex. The most ancient indices (lists) of “true and false books,” in addition to “true” books, distinguished between “hidden” and “hidden” books, which were recommended to be read only by knowledgeable people, and “false” books, which were certainly forbidden to be read, since they contained heretical views . However, in practice, it was almost impossible to separate apocryphal stories from stories found in “true” books: apocryphal legends were reflected in monuments that enjoyed the highest authority: in chronicles, paleas, in collections used in worship (Solemnists, Menaions). Attitudes towards the apocrypha changed over time: some monuments that were popular in the past were subsequently banned and even destroyed, but, on the other hand, in the “Great Menaion of Cheti”, created in the 16th century. Orthodox churchmen included many texts previously considered apocryphal as a set of recommended reading literature.
Among the first translations carried out under Yaroslav the Wise or over the subsequent decades were also monuments of Byzantine chronography.
Chronicle of George Amartol. Among them, the Chronicle of George Amartol was of greatest importance for the history of Russian chronicles and chronography. The author, a Byzantine monk, outlined in his work the entire history of the world from Adam to the events of the mid-9th century. In addition to the events of biblical history, the Chronicle told about the kings of the East (Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius), Alexander the Great, Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Costanius Chlorus, and then about the Byzantine emperors, from Constantine the Great to Michael III. While still on Greek soil, the Chronicle was supplemented by an extract from the “Chronicle of Simeon Logothetes,” and the presentation in it was completed before the death of Emperor Roman Lecapinus (he was overthrown from the throne in 944 and died in 948). Despite its significant volume and breadth of historical range, Amartol's work presented world history from a unique perspective, primarily as church history. The author often introduces lengthy theological reasoning into his presentation, scrupulously sets out the debates at ecumenical councils, himself argues with heretics, denounces iconoclasm, and quite often replaces the description of events with reasoning about them. We find a relatively detailed account of the political history of Byzantium only in the last part of the Chronicle, which describes the events of the 9th - first half of the 10th centuries. The “Chronicle of Amartol” was used in the compilation of a brief chronographic code - the “Chronograph according to the Great Exposition”, which in turn was used in the compilation of the “Initial Code”, one of the oldest monuments of Russian chronicles (see below, p. 39). Then the Chronicle was again turned to when compiling the Tale of Bygone Years; it became part of the extensive ancient Russian chronographic codes - “Greek Chronicler”, “Russian Chronograph”, etc.
Chronicle of John Malala. The Byzantine Chronicle, compiled in the 6th century, had a different character. by the Greek Syrian John Malala. Its author, according to the researcher of the monument, “set out to provide moralizing, in the spirit of Christian piety, edifying, and at the same time entertaining reading for a wide audience of readers and listeners.” The “Chronicle of Malala” retells in detail ancient myths (about the birth of Zeus, about the struggle of the gods with the Titans, myths about Dionysus, Orpheus, Daedalus and Icarus, Theseus and Ariadne, Oedipus); The fifth book of the Chronicle contains a story about the Trojan War. Malala sets out in detail the history of Rome (especially the ancient one - from Romulus and Remus to Julius Caesar), and a significant place is devoted to the political history of Byzantium. In a word, the “Chronicle of Malala” successfully complemented Amartol’s presentation, in particular, it was through this “Chronicle” that Kievan Rus could get acquainted with the myths of ancient Greece. Separate lists of the Slavic translation of the “Chronicle of Malala” have not reached us; we know it only as part of the extracts included in Russian chronographic compilations (“Archive” and “Vilna” chronographs, both editions of the “Hellenic Chronicler”, etc.).
History of the Jewish War by Josephus. Perhaps already in the middle of the 11th century. Josephus Flavius’s “History of the Jewish War” was translated in Rus' - an exceptionally authoritative monument in the Christian literature of the Middle Ages. The History was written between 75–79. n. e. Joseph ben Mattafie, a contemporary and direct participant in the anti-Roman uprising in Judea, who later went over to the side of the Romans. The book of Joseph is a valuable historical source, although extremely biased, for the author very unequivocally condemns his fellow tribesmen, but glorifies the military art and political wisdom of Vespasian and Titus Flavius. At the same time, “History” is a brilliant literary monument. Josephus Flavius skillfully uses plot narration techniques; his presentation is replete with descriptions, dialogues, and psychological characteristics; the “speeches” of the characters in “History” are constructed according to the laws of ancient declamations; even when talking about events, the author remains a sophisticated stylist: he strives for a symmetrical construction of phrases, willingly resorts to rhetorical oppositions, skillfully constructed enumerations, etc. Sometimes it seems that for Josephus the form of presentation is no less important than the subject itself about which he writes.
The Old Russian translator understood and appreciated the literary merits of the “History”: he was not only able to preserve the refined style of the monument in translation, but in a number of cases he entered into competition with the author, either disseminating descriptions using traditional stylistic formulas, or translating the indirect speech of the original into direct speech, or introducing comparisons or clarifications that make the narrative more lively and imaginative. The translation of “History” is convincing evidence of the high culture of words among the scribes of Kievan Rus.
Alexandria. No later than the 12th century. An extensive narrative about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great was also translated from Greek - the so-called pseudo-Callisthenes “Alexandria”. It is based on a Hellenistic novel, apparently created in Alexandria in the 2nd–1st centuries. BC e., but later subjected to additions and revisions. Over time, the initial biographical narrative became more and more fictionalized, overgrown with legendary and fairy-tale motifs, gradually turning into an adventure novel typical of the Hellenistic era. One of these later versions of “Alexandria” was translated into Rus'.
The actual history of the actions of the famous commander is barely traceable here, buried under the layers of later traditions and legends. Alexander turns out to be no longer the son of the Macedonian king, but illegitimate son Olympiad and the Egyptian king-sorcerer Nektonav. The birth of a hero is accompanied by miraculous signs. Contrary to history, Alexander conquers Rome and Athens, boldly appears to Darius, posing as a Macedonian ambassador, negotiates with the queen of the Amazons, etc. The third book of Alexandria is especially replete with fairy-tale motifs, where Alexander’s (of course, fictitious) letters to mothers; the hero informs Olympias about the miracles he saw: people of gigantic stature, disappearing trees, fish that can be boiled in cold water, six-legged and three-eyed monsters, etc. Nevertheless, the ancient Russian scribes apparently perceived “Alexandria” as a historical narrative about as evidenced by the inclusion of its full text in the chronographic codes. Regardless of how the novel about Alexander was received in Rus', the very fact that ancient Russian readers became acquainted with this most popular plot of the Middle Ages was of great importance: ancient Russian literature was thereby introduced into the sphere of pan-European cultural interests, enriching their knowledge of the history of the ancient world.
The Tale of Akira the Wise. If "Alexandria" genetically went back to the historical narrative and told about a historical character, then "The Tale of Akira the Wise", also translated in Kievan Rus in the 11th - early 12th centuries, is in origin a purely fictional monument - an ancient Assyrian legend of the 7th century. BC e. Researchers have not come to a single conclusion about the ways of penetration of “The Tale of Akira” into Rus': there are assumptions that it was translated from the Syriac or Armenian original. In Rus' the Tale lived a long life. Its oldest edition (apparently a translation very close to the original) was preserved in four copies of the 15th–17th centuries. In the 16th or early 17th centuries. The story has been radically revised. Its new editions (Brief and Distributed, which goes back to it), have largely lost their original oriental flavor, but acquired the features of a Russian folk tale, were extremely popular in the 17th century, and among the Old Believers the story continued to exist until our time.
The oldest edition of the Russian translation of the Tale told how Akir, the wise adviser to King Sinagrippa, was slandered by his adopted son Anadan and sentenced to death. But devoted friend Akira - Nabuginail saved and managed to reliably hide the convict. Some time later, the Egyptian pharaoh demanded that King Sinagrippa send him a sage who could solve the riddles proposed by the pharaoh and build a palace “between heaven and earth.” For this, the pharaoh will pay Synagrippa “three years’ tribute.” If the envoy Synagrippa fails to complete the task, tribute will be exacted in favor of Egypt. All those close to Sinagrippa, including Anadan, who has now become Akir’s successor as the first nobleman, admit that they are unable to fulfill the pharaoh’s demand. Then Nabuginail informs the despairing Synagrippus that Akir is alive. The happy king forgives the disgraced sage and sends him under the guise of a simple groom to the pharaoh. Akir solves the riddles and then cunningly avoids completing the final task - building a palace. To do this, Akir teaches the eagles to lift a basket into the air; the boy sitting in it shouts to be given “stone and lime”: he is ready to begin building the palace. But no one can deliver the necessary goods to the skies, and the pharaoh is forced to admit defeat. Akir returns home with a “three-year tribute”, again becomes close to Synagrippa, and the exposed Anadan dies a terrible death.
The wisdom (or cunning) of the hero freeing himself from the need to complete an impossible task is a traditional fairy tale motif. And it is characteristic that with all the alterations of the Tale on Russian soil, it was the story about how Akir guesses the riddles of the pharaoh and, with wise counter-demands, forces him to abandon his claims, enjoyed constant popularity, it was constantly revised and supplemented with new details.
The Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph. If “The Tale of Akira the Wise” resembles a fairy tale in many of its elements, then another translated story - about Varlaam and Joasaph - is closely related to the hagiographic genre, although in fact its plot is based on the legendary biography of Buddha, which came to Rus' through Byzantine media.
The Tale tells how Prince Joasaph, the son of the Indian pagan king Abner, under the influence of the hermit Varlaam, becomes a Christian ascetic.
However, the plot, potentially replete with “conflict situations,” turns out to be extremely smoothed out in the Tale: the author seems to be in a hurry to eliminate the obstacles that arise or simply “forget” about them. So, for example, Abner imprisons young Joasaph in a secluded palace precisely so that the boy cannot hear about the ideas of Christianity and does not learn about the existence of old age, illness, and death in the world. And yet, Joasaph still leaves the palace and immediately meets a sick old man, and the Christian hermit Barlaam enters his chambers without any special obstacles. The pagan sage Nahor, according to Abner's plan, in a dispute with the imaginary Barlaam, should debunk the ideas of Christianity, but suddenly, completely unexpectedly, he himself begins to denounce paganism. A beautiful princess is brought to Joasaph; she must persuade the young ascetic to sensual pleasures, but Joasaph easily resists the beauty’s charms and easily convinces her to become a chaste Christian. There are a lot of dialogues in the Tale, but they are all devoid of individuality and naturalness: Barlaam, Joasaph, and the pagan sages speak in the same pompous and “scholarly” manner. Before us is like a lengthy philosophical debate, the participants of which are as conventional as the participants in a conversation in the genre of “philosophical dialogue”. Nevertheless, The Tale of Varlaam was widely distributed; The parables-apologists included in its composition, illustrating the ideals of Christian piety and asceticism, were especially popular: some of the parables were included in collections of both mixed and permanent composition (for example, in “Izmaragd”), and many dozens of their lists are known.
Devgenie's act. It is believed that even in Kievan Rus, a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about Digenis Akritos was carried out (akrits were the name given to warriors who guarded the borders Byzantine Empire). The time of translation is indicated, according to researchers, by language data - lexical parallels of the story (in the Russian version it was called “Devgeniy’s Deed”) and literary monuments of Kievan Rus, as well as the mention of Devgeniy Akrit in “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. But the comparison with Akrit appears only in the third (according to the classification of Yu. K. Begunov) edition of the monument, probably created in the middle of the 15th century, and cannot serve as an argument in favor of the existence of the translation in Kievan Rus. Significant plot differences between the “Acts of Devgenius” and the Greek versions of the epic about Digenis Akritos known to us remain open question, whether these differences were a consequence of a radical reworking of the original during translation, whether they arose in the process of later alterations of the text on Russian soil, or whether the Russian text corresponds to the Greek version that has not reached us.
Devgenius (as the Greek name Digenis was rendered in Russian translation) is a typical epic hero. He has extraordinary strength (even as a boy, Devgeny strangled a bear with his bare hands, and, having matured, exterminates thousands of enemy soldiers in battles), he is handsome, knightly generous. A significant place in the Russian version of the monument is occupied by the story of Devgeny’s marriage to the daughter of the proud and stern Stratigus. This episode has all the characteristic features of an “epic matchmaking”: Devgeny sings a love song under the girl’s windows; She, admiring the beauty and daring of the young man, agrees to run away with him. Devgeny takes his beloved away in broad daylight, defeats her father and brothers in battle, then makes peace with them; the parents of the newlyweds arrange a multi-day lavish wedding.
Devgeny is akin to the heroes of translated chivalric novels that spread in Rus' in the 17th century. (such as Bova Korolevich, Eruslan, Vasily Zlatovlasy), and, apparently, this closeness to the literary taste of the era contributed to the revival of the manuscript tradition of the “Acts”: all three lists that have come down to us date back to the 17th–18th centuries.
So, Kievan Rus in a short period of time acquired a rich and varied literature. A whole system of genres was transferred to new soil: chronicles, historical stories, lives, patericons, “words”, teachings. The significance of this phenomenon is being more and more deeply studied and comprehended in our science. It has been established that the system of genres of Byzantine or ancient Bulgarian literature was not completely transferred to Rus': ancient Russian scribes preferred some genres and rejected others. At the same time, genres arose in Rus' that had no analogues in “model literature”: the Russian chronicle is not similar to the Byzantine chronicle, and the chronicles themselves are used as material for independent and original chronographic compilations; the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Prayer of Daniil the Imprisoner” and “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan” are completely original. Translated works not only enriched Russian scribes with historical or natural science information, introduced them to the plots of ancient myths and epic legends, they at the same time represented different types plots, styles, manners of narration, being a kind of literary school for ancient Russian scribes, who were able to get acquainted with the ponderous, verbose Amartol and the laconic, stingy on details and details of Malala, with the brilliant stylist Flavius and with the inspired rhetorician John Chrysostom, with the heroic world of the epic of Devgenia and the exotic fantasy of Alexandria. It was rich material for reading and writing experience, wonderful school literary language; it helped Old Russian scribes to visualize possible variants of styles, to refine their hearing and speech on the colossal lexical wealth of Byzantine and Old Church Slavonic literature.
But it would be a mistake to believe that translated literature was the only and main school of ancient Russian scribes. In addition to translated literature, they used the rich traditions of oral folk art, and above all, the traditions of the Slavic epic. This is not a guess or a reconstruction of modern researchers: as we will see later, folk epic legends are recorded in early chronicles and represent a completely exceptional artistic phenomenon that has no analogues in the monuments of translated literature known to us. Slavic epic legends are distinguished by a special manner of constructing the plot, a unique interpretation of the character of the heroes, and a style that differs from the style of monumental historicism, which was formed mainly under the influence of monuments of translated literature.
From the book Empire - I [with illustrations] author4. Slavic conquest of Europe in the 6th-7th centuries AD. as one of the reflections of the Russian “Mongol” conquest of the XIV-XV centuries. The result is this. The unbiased and frank Scandinavian story about the settlement and conquest of Europe by the descendants of “Mongols”, Goths, Turks, Tatars was reflected
From the book Tsar of the Slavs. author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich5. Through what refracting prism do we today look at the past of Rus' in the 14th–16th centuries? Struggle in Russian society of the 17th–18th centuries So, it turns out that there was a lot of unusual things from the point of view of Scaligerian-Romanov history in the ancient Moscow Kremlin. But then, during the era of occupation
From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich1. ROMEA-BYZANTIUM OF THE XI-XV CENTURIES AND THE GREAT = “MONGOL” EMPIRE OF THE XIV-XVI CENTURIES ARE THE ORIGINALS OF ALL “ANCIENT KINGDOMS” Our books “Empire” and “Biblical Rus'” presented new results on the reconstruction of the chronology and history of the XIII-XVII centuries. It seems to us
From the book Reconstruction true history author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich6. The Tsar-Grad Kingdom of the 11th–12th centuries and the Horde Empire of the 12th–16th centuries are the originals of all the main “ancient kingdoms” of Scaligerian history. We discovered that the “emperors of the Western Roman Empire,” that is, the Habsburgs until the 16th century, turn out to be only phantom reflections
From the book Book 2. The Mystery of Russian History [New Chronology of Rus'. Tatar and Arabic languages in Rus'. Yaroslavl as Veliky Novgorod. Ancient English history author Nosovsky Gleb VladimirovichChapter 6 Despite the efforts of falsifiers of the 17th–18th centuries, English chronicles retained a lot of information about the true events of the 11th–16th centuries England and Rus'-Horde 1. The “ancient” Roman consul Brutus, the first Roman to conquer Britain, was at the same time the first “ very ancient"
From the book The Birth of Rus' author Rybakov Boris AlexandrovichLITERATURE ON THE HISTORY OF Rus' AND RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE IX-XIII CENTURIES Grekov B. D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. Yushkov SV. Socio-political system and law of the Kyiv state. M., 1949. Tikhomirov M. N. Ancient Rus'. M., 1975. Rybakov B. A. Craft of Ancient Rus'. M., 1948. Rybakov B. A. Kievan Rus and
From the book Reconstruction of True History author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich6. The Tsar-Grad Kingdom of the 11th–12th centuries and the Horde Empire of the 13th–16th centuries are the originals of all the main “ancient kingdoms” of Scaligerian history. We discovered that the “emperors of the Western Roman Empire,” that is, the Habsburgs until the 16th century, turn out to be only phantom reflections
From the book The Mystery of the Baptism of Rus' author Froyanov Igor Yakovlevich From the book Tsar of the Slavs author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich5. THROUGH WHAT REFRACTIVE PRISM ARE WE LOOKING TODAY AT THE PAST OF Rus' OF THE XIV-XVI CENTURIES? STRUGGLE IN RUSSIAN SOCIETY OF THE 17th-18th CENTURIES So, it turns out that there were a lot of unusual things from the point of view of Scaligerian-Romanov history in the ancient Moscow Kremlin. But then, during the era of occupation
From the book Old Russian Literature. 18th century literature author Prutskov N I6. Translated and original short story. The Tale of Frol Skobeev Among the new for Russian literature of the 17th century. genre was a short story. In the formation of a secular Russian culture, completely autonomous from religion and the church, this genre played a truly enormous role. As you know, the novella is not
From the book Medieval chronologists “lengthened history.” Mathematics in history author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich7. Correspondence between Roman history of the 1st–6th centuries AD. e. (Roman Empires II and III) and the Holy Roman Empire of the 10th–13th centuries (Hohenstaufen Empire) SECULAR HISTORY Let us continue the description of repetitions in Scaligerian history, due to the shift by 1053. Action of the detected
From the book Book 1. Empire [Slavic conquest of the world. Europe. China. Japan. Rus' as a medieval metropolis of the Great Empire] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich4. Slavic conquest of Europe allegedly VI-VII centuries AD. e. as one of the reflections of the Russian “Mongol” conquest of the 14th–15th centuries. The result is this. In the unbiased and frank Scandinavian story about the settlement and conquest of Europe by the descendants of the "MONGOLS", GOTHS, TURKS, TATARS, it found its
From the book Literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries author Prutskov N ILiterature of the turn of the century and the period of the 1905 revolution
From the book Book 1. Western myth[“Ancient” Rome and the “German” Habsburgs are reflections of the Russian-Horde history of the 14th–17th centuries. The legacy of the Great Empire in cult author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich1. The Tsar-Grad kingdom of the 11th–12th centuries and the Great = “Mongol” empire of the 13th–16th centuries are the originals of all the main “ancient kingdoms” of Scaligerian history. Our results allow us to understand what the history of Rome actually looked like. Let us recall that, according to the new
From the book World of History: Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries author Shakhmagonov Fedor FedorovichLiterature on the history of Rus' of the XIII–XV centuries Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. St. Petersburg, 1816, vol. III. Soloviev S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. M., 1960, vol. II, III. Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history. M., 1959, vol. II. Presnyakov A. E. Formation of the Great Russian State. P.,
From the book The End of Cultural Institutions of the Twenties in Leningrad author Malikova Maria Emmanuilovna1.The emergence of DRL, its specifics. DRL arose in the 11th-17th centuries. Oral folk art : fairy tales, proverbs, ritual poetry, sayings; Mythology: topological legends, war songs, epics, legends. 988- Baptism of Rus'. Greco-Byzantine culture. Socio-historical prerequisites of the DRL: 1) formation of the state (decomposition of the communal-tribal system, formation of feudalism); 2) Formation of a nation; 3) the existence of highly developed forms of CNTs; 4) the emergence of writing (863 Cyril and Methodius created the word alphabet - the cultural dawn of the eastern and southern Slavs). Books came to Rus' through Bulgaria from Byzantium: religious books (bible); apocrypha - religious banned publications; hagiography - lives of saints; historiographic books - chronicles, stories; natural-scientific-descriptive plant, animal world; patristics - works of the church fathers (John Chrysostom, Gregory the Low, Basil the Great). Specifics: 1) DRL is handwritten. 2) Anonymity (personality) the author does not recognize himself as an author, he is a “guide”, he only records facts, does not strive to stick out, fiction is not allowed, fiction is a lie); 3) Historicism . 4) Texts exist in collections . Variability and instability. The scribe could change the text . 5) Retrospective. Constant feeling of connection between times . 6) Monumentalism. The desire of the DR writer to fit and comprehend the life of a private person or an individual people into universal human history. 7 )DRL was not singled out as a type of creative literature, because literature was inextricably linked with religion, science, and philosophy. 8 )DRL was created in the Church Slavonic language. Pagan legends in Ancient Rus' were not written down, but were transmitted orally. Christian teaching was presented in books, therefore, with the adoption of Christianity, books appeared in Rus'. The need for books in Rus' at the time of the adoption of Christianity was great, but there were few books. The process of copying books was long and difficult. The first books were written by statute, or rather, they were not written, but drawn. Each letter was drawn separately. Continuous writing appeared only in the 15th century. First books. The oldest Russian book that has reached us is the so-called Ostromir Gospel. The parchment on which the first books were written was very expensive. Therefore, the customers are rich people or the church. The oldest Russian chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years, dated 1037, reports that Prince Yaroslav the Wise had a passion for books; he ordered the gathering of scribes who translated and copied many books. In the first half of the 11th century. In Rus', many monuments of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature are indeed becoming famous. Among the books, liturgical texts or monuments predominated, containing the foundations of the Christian worldview and Christian morality. However, scribes brought from Bulgaria, translated or rewrote works of other genres: chronicles, historical and historical stories, natural science works, collections of sayings.
2. Genres of DRL, periodization of DRL. Genre They call a historically established type of literary work, an abstract sample on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed its system of genres. The specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. Primary genres. These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: life, word, teaching, story. Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend. Life . The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most common and favorite genre of DRL. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons. Canons of Life: 1) The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. A saint was born a saint, not made one; 2) The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer; 3) Description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death; 3) The saint was not afraid of death; 4) The life ended with the glorification of the saint (the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb).
Old Russian eloquence. This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive); Political; Solemn. Teaching. Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. Word. The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." An example of political eloquence is “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present. Sample ceremonial variety Old Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium. Tale. A story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
Uniting genres Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, cheti-menaion, and patericon. Chronicle is a narration of historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle reported on historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document. The oldest chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years. The chronicle tells about the origin of Russians, about genealogy Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Chronograph - these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15-16 centuries.
Chetyi-Minei (literally “reading by month”) - a collection of works about holy people. Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers. Special mention should be made about the genre apocrypha . Apocrypha – from the ancient Greek language as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. Likhachev identifies the periods: 1) period 11th-early 12th century in literature, the monumental-historical style dominates, the relative unity of literature: a single Kiev literature. Literature develops in two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod. The time of the appearance of the first Russian Lives. (“The Life of Boris and Gleb” is the first Russian life). The origin of the original Russian genre - chronicle writing - “The Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL). 2) period mid 12th century - first third of the 13th century. New literary centers are emerging: Suzdal, Rostov, Smolensk, Galich, etc. Local literary features - local themes. The time began for feudal fragmentation. Periods 1 and 2 are the literature of Kievan Rus, because The style of monumental historicism (MSM) dominates. 3) period late 13th - early 14th century. The period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Literature is dying out for a while - one theme dominates in literature - the theme of the fight against invaders, hence tragedy, patriotism, citizenship - these are the leading features of the time. 4) period end of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. The age of pre-renaissance, Rus' is economically and culturally revived, an expressive-emotional style (characteristic of hagiographies) dominates. 5) period second half of the 15th century. Translated works penetrate into the DRL: “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga”. In 1453, Constantinople (the capital of Byzantium) fell, and literature was democratized. The influence of Byzantium on the life of Rus', on the development of culture, is not of great importance; becomes an independent, unfinished state. A single central state begins to form (Moscow and Novgorod), and a heretical disconnect occurs. 6) period Mid 16th century. main feature- the dominance of the journalistic style: the time of struggle between the nobility and the boyars. 7) period 17th century Transition to new literature. The development of the individual principle in the work of writers is increasing (authorship, theater, poetry appear).
6.PVL: types of chronicle narrative. 1)Weather records. They are short. The simplest element in the chronicle text, only reporting an event, but not describing it. 2) Chronicle legend. They are based on oral political traditions, but the chronicler takes from them only the factual side, and not the moral assessment. 3) Chronicle story- This is an expanded form of weather recording. Containing a business story about important events. 4) Chronicle story. It presents the ideal image of the prince. 5) Documentation, cat. taken from book archives, contracts, “Russian Truth” - the first set of laws. 6) Included Tales of Bygone Years also included legends. For example, a story about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv on behalf of Prince Kiy; tales of the Prophetic Oleg, who defeated the Greeks and died from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of a deceased princely horse; about Princess Olga, cunningly and cruelly taking revenge on the Drevlyan tribe for the murder of her husband. The chronicler is invariably interested in news about the past of the Russian land, about the founding of cities, hills, rivers and the reasons why they received these names. Legends also report this. IN Tales of Bygone Years the share of legends is very large, since the initial events of ancient Russian history described in it are separated from the time of work of the first chroniclers by many decades and even centuries. 7) A significant part of the text in Tales of Bygone Years occupy battle narratives, written in the so-called military style, and princely obituaries. 8) Included Tales of Bygone Years turn on and stories of saints, written in a special hagiographic style. This is the story of the brother-princes Boris and Gleb under 1015, who, imitating the humility and non-resistance of Christ, meekly accepted death at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk. chronicle collection”, on the basis of which the “Tale of Bygone Years” was subsequently compiled), and the story of the holy Pechersk monks under 1074.
3 .Translated literature of the 11th-13th centuries, Natural science and historical works, patristics. Translated literature. Bible(Greek book) - sacred scripture, divinely inspired book. The 1st Bible (Genadievskaya Bible) appeared in 1499 (in full version) in Novgorod. Bible- this is a meeting religious works(12th century BC -2nd century AD). Consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament. VZ written in Hebrew. Revered by Jews and Christians . Covenant-union. VZ- the mystical union of God with God’s chosen people based on the fulfillment of the law (Torah). There are 2 editions of the OT: 1) Written in Hebrew. It included: a) the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, numbers, Deuteronomy); b) prophets (the book of Jesus Novinus, the book of Judges, the book of Samuel, the books of Kings); c) scriptures (poetic and prose genres - parables of Solomon, Song of Songs). 2) Translated into Greek. "70 Interpreters or Septuagint", later translated into Latin ("Vulgate"). NZ- written in Greek. Revered only by Christians. NZ- The mystical union of God and man, these are the monuments of early Christian literature, cat. written in the 2nd half. first and early 2nd centuries. Composition of NZ - 1) 4 Gospels. The word "gospel" is translated as "good news." They tell about the life and teachings of Christ. Gospel 4: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. 2) The Acts of the Apostles is a story about the life of the Jerusalem community and the paths of the Apostle Paul. 3) 21 epistles of the apostles. Paul, Peter, Jude, John. 4) Apocalypse (from Greek “revelation”), wrote John. A prediction about the final battle between good and evil and the end of the world. The Bible introduced new standards of morality and Christ is God and the ideal of human behavior. Patristics- one of the theological sciences, whose subject is the study of the works of the holy fathers of the church and the systematic presentation of the teachings contained in them. In the Christian Church, the title “father” has been assigned, since the time of the apostles, to the general pastors of the church. In a more special sense, the name “holy fathers of the church” is assigned to those church teachers who, in their creations, left a presentation and explanation of the Christian faith, accepted by the church for its leadership. Among the “fathers of the church,” the “ecumenical teachers” who have the highest personal authority in the church stand out especially as they provided it with special services in defending, formulating and explaining the dogmas of the faith. In the Eastern Church this meaning is assigned to St. Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom and Athanasius of Alexandria. Natural science essays Among the translated monuments that circulated in ancient Rus' were those that provided scientific information about the natural world. These included the collections: Physiologist, Shestodnev and Christian Topography of Cosmas Indikoplov. These collections are thoroughly imbued with a specifically Christian worldview, which during the Middle Ages completely subordinated science to theological dogma and adapted it to the interests of the church. The physiologist included a description of the characteristics and properties of mainly various animals, real and imaginary, as well as fantastic stones and trees. Thus, in the oldest edition of the Physiologist, a lion, an eagle, a snake, a frog, an elephant, etc. appear next to a phoenix, sirens, centaurs, a unicorn and some other fantastic animals. From trees in Physiologist we're talking about about the oak and the fig tree. Among the stones, the Physiologist included diamond, flint, magnet, agate, pearl, and “Indian stone.” Even in those cases when the Physiologist talks about real animals, trees and stones, he reports quite fantastic information about them. The total number of stories in the oldest edition of the Physiologist that has come down to us is 49. Each story of the Physiologist is accompanied by symbolic interpretations in the spirit of Christian dogmatics. The Physiologist arose, judging by what was done at the end of the 11th century. references to it by the church fathers, approximately around the middle of the century, apparently in Alexandria. He drew his material from ancient writers, from monuments of Egyptian and biblical antiquity and from Talmudic legends. We received special attention historical works . Historiography - historiographic books came to Rus' in two forms: 1) Byzantine chronicles of George Amartol - events from the creation of the world to the middle. 9th century, were considered from the position of theology; John Malala - about the history of the countries of the East, Rome, Byzantium with historical details; 2) Stories, legends, adventures that are associated with historical events, kings, emperors. In addition to the four books mentioned above, Paleys were very widespread in Rus' - Historical and Explanatory.
4. Ancient Christian literature in Rus', biblical canonical books and apocrypha.
Apocrypha“books are not for everyone,” secret books, because the books are false, not recognized by the church. There is a legend among the apocrypha about the creation of Adam (IV century) - it describes how God created man from 8 parts. Apocrypha is characterized by an abundance of miracles and fantasy. Apocrypha for people who think. Primitivization is characteristic. Apocrypha are books of prohibited indexes, although they are written on biblical and evangelical subjects. They were brighter, more specific, more interesting, and attracted attention. What is false in the apocrypha is: 1) how a person is portrayed too specifically, pagan specificity; 2) the appearance of the creator - a skilled, skilled old man, quarreling with the devil, a down-to-earth image; 3) the idea that not only God, but also the devil takes part in the creation of man: God creates the soul, the devil creates the body). Apocrypha - legendary religious works. They were created before Christian times and in the early times of the Christian era. The Apocrypha is based on legends and traditions of other times, i.e. rely on more ancient culture and associated with: 1) folklore; 2) ancient culture; 3) Hebrew culture. In the 4th century. At the Ecumenical Council, the holy books were classified into canonical and non-canonical (renounced). The Apocrypha was classified as non-canonical, as heretical literature. Heresy - oppositional godson movements. Apocrypha existed in Rus' from the 10th to the 13th centuries. They are divided into: 1) Old Testament (legends about the creation of the world, about Adam, about the 12 patriarchs,) 2) New Testament (About Christ). 3) Apocryphal gospels (Gospel of Nikadin; of Thomas; of James; of Judas); 4) Eschatological. About the afterlife (the Virgin Mary’s journey through torment; about the Last Judgment). That. thematic apocrypha is close to the religious canonical text, but in the interpretation of events or characters they diverge from the canon. Apocrypha has always been interesting because... they are connected: 1) walks, torments, temptations, revelations, deeds; 2) They were often passed on by word of mouth, i.e. the apocryphal text appealed to the senses and excluded long theological discussions. Ancient Christian book literature in Rus'. The adoption of Christianity by Russia should have been accompanied by an influx of book literature into Rus', which would clarify and develop its basic religious tenets. The progressive significance of the baptism of Rus' was precisely determined by its introduction to Christian literature, which was the product of a higher culture than pagan culture. At first, Christian bookishness not only expanded the mental horizon of the ancient Russian writer and reader, but also introduced him to new social and moral concepts and contributed to the assimilation of more advanced forms of civil society. At the same time, it replenished the stock of means of verbal expression that already existed in the Russian language. Pagan Rus', just like other countries that had just joined Christianity, had to first of all take advantage of the most important, long-developed and established types of church Christian literature, without which the rooting and propaganda of a new doctrine and a new worldview would have been impossible. These were the biblical books of the Old and New Testaments and the apocryphal tales adjacent to them, works of hagiographic (“hagiographic”) literature, religiously colored historical chronicles that presented historical facts in the light of church-Christian ideology, writings on issues of peacemaking and the structure of the Universe, interpreted in the spirit the same ideology, the works of the “Church Fathers”, devoted to issues of Christian dogma and morality, etc. In its origin, it was mainly literature created or formed in Byzantium and spread in translations to Russia, as it spread in other countries of medieval Europe . Russian literature could not help but take advantage of the experience of older Christian literature, and the very ability of newly converted Rus' to widely and very quickly master Byzantine books, as well as a keen interest in it, is an indisputable evidence of the height cultural level ancient Rus'.
5. PVL: thin. originality, meaning: Artistic originality: 1) Plot entertainment; 2) The presence of short live dialogues; 3)Presence of psychological scenes; 4) Panoramic vision, large view. removal; ceremoniality, the presence of stereotyped plots, images, metaphors. They are designed for recognition. A standard model of behavior and thinking is shown. Meaning: 1) It is an archive of works that were lost to us; 2) The chronicle is a special edification, a lesson to us; 3) Source of plots, images, popular expressions; 4) The basis for writing all-Russian history. PVL played an important role in the development of regional chronicles and in the creation of all-Russian chronicles of the 15-16th centuries: it was invariably included in these chronicles, revealing the history of Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, and then the history of Moscow, the Moscow State. In the literature of the 18th-19th centuries. PVL served as a source of poetic plots and images (Ya.B. Knyazhnin builds his tragedy “Vadim Novgorodsky” on the material of the chronicle. The images of Vladimir and Oleg occupy a large place in the romantic “Thoughts” of Ryleev. The poetry of the chronicle legends was perfectly felt, understood and conveyed by A S. Pushkin in “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg". And today the story has not lost its great not only historical and educational significance, but also educational. It continues to serve the education of noble patriotic feelings, teaches deep respect for the glorious historical past of our people.
7.PVL as a cast monument. Its composition, editions and sources. PVL is an outstanding historical and literary monument that reflected the formation of the ancient Russian state, its political and cultural flourishing, as well as the beginning of the process of feudal fragmentation. Created in the first decades of the 12th century, it has come down to us as part of chronicles of a later time. The oldest of them are the Laurentian Chronicle - 1377, the Ipatiev Chronicle, dating back to the 20s of the 15th century, and the First Novgorod Chronicle of the 30s of the 14th century. In the Laurentian Chronicle, the “Tale of Bygone Years” is continued by the North Russian Suzdal Chronicle, brought up to 1305, and the Ipatiev Chronicle, in addition to the “Tale of Bygone Years,” contains the Kiev and Galician-Volyn chronicles, brought up to 1292. All subsequent chronicles of the 15th-16th centuries. certainly included “The Tale of Bygone Years” in their composition, subjecting it to editorial and stylistic revision.
The materials for “PVL” included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions. Sources of the story: chronicles, chronicles (Georgy Amartov), folklore. “PVL” also used written sources, Russian and foreign. For example, the Chronicle of George Amartol, a Moravian-Pannonian source, the life of Basil the New, a Greek source.
Russian sources "PVL": folklore, military stories, monastic tales, lives (Boris and Gleb), teachings, legends. Formation of the chronicle. Shakhmatov's hypothesis A. A. Shakhmatov, an outstanding Russian philologist, at the beginning of this century managed to create the most valuable scientific hypothesis about the composition, sources and editions of The Tale of Bygone Years. When developing his hypothesis, A. A. Shakhmatov used the comparative historical method of philological study of the text. In 1039, a metropolitanate was established in Kyiv - an independent church organization. At the court of the Metropolitan, the “Most Ancient Kievan Code” was created, updated to 1037. This code, suggested A. A. Shakhmatov, arose on the basis of Greek translated chronicles and local folklore material. In Novgorod in 1036 the Novgorod Chronicle was created, on its basis and on the basis of the “Ancient Kievan Code” in 1050 the “Ancient Novgorod Code” appeared. In 1073, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great, using the “Ancient Kiev Code,” compiled the “First Kiev-Pechersk Code,” which also included records of historical events that occurred after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054). Based on the “First Kiev-Pechersk Vault” and the “Ancient Novgorod Vault” of 1050, the “Second Kiev-Pechersk Vault” was created in 1095, or, as Shakhmatov first called it, the “Initial Vault”. The author of the “Second Kiev-Pechersk Code” supplemented his sources with materials from the Greek chronograph, the Paremiynik, oral stories of Jan Vyshatich and the life of Anthony of Pechersk. “The Second Kiev-Pechersk Code” served as the basis for the “Tale of Bygone Years”, the first edition of which was created in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, the second edition by the abbot of the Vydubitsky Monastery Sylvester in 1116 and the third by an unknown author-confessor Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. First edition ( Vydubetsky Monastery) “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor focuses on the narrative of historical events of the late 11th - early 12th centuries. allocated to the great Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, who died in 1113. Vladimir Monomakh, having become the great Kyiv prince after the death of Svyatopolk, transferred the keeping of the chronicle to his patrimonial Vydubitsky monastery. Here Abbot Sylvester carried out an editorial revision of Nestor's text, highlighting the figure of Vladimir Monomakh. The unpreserved text of Nestor’s first edition of “The Tale of Bygone Years” is reconstructed by A. A. Shakhmatov in his work “The Tale of Bygone Years”. Second edition, according to the scientist, the Laurentian Chronicle (Vydubetsky Monastery) is best preserved, and third- Ipatievskaya. (In the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery). A. A. Shakhmatov’s hypothesis remains a hypothesis for now. There are also hypotheses by Likhachev and Rybakov.
8. Chronicle time. Likhachev's concept, the originality of the composition. Chronicles, historical works of the 11th-17th centuries, in which the narrative was told by year. Chronicles are the most important historical sources, the most significant monuments of social thought and culture of Ancient Rus'. Chronicles testify to the high patriotic consciousness of the Russian people in the 11th-17th centuries. At least 1,500 copies of chronicles have survived. Many works of ancient Russian literature have been preserved in them: “The Instruction” of Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of the Battle of Mamayev”, “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin and others. The most famous of the early chronicle collections that has come down to ours time, - “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Its creator is considered to be Nestor, a monk of the Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv, who wrote his work ca. 1113. In Kyiv in the 12th century. Chronicle writing was carried out in the Kiev-Pechersk and Vydubitsky St. Michael's monasteries, as well as at the princely court. The South Russian chronicle was preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle, which consists of the “Tale of Bygone Years”, continued mainly by the Kyiv news (ending 1200), and the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle (ending 1289-92). In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the main centers of chronicle writing were Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and Pereyaslavl. The monument to this chronicle is the Laurentian Chronicle, which begins with the “Tale of Bygone Years,” continued by Vladimir-Suzdal news until 1305. Chronicle writing received great development in Novgorod at the court of the archbishop, at monasteries and churches. The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused a temporary decline in chronicle writing. In the XIV-XV centuries. it develops again. The largest centers of chronicle writing were Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Tver, and Moscow. The chronicles reflected ch. in the form of local events (the birth and death of princes, military campaigns, battles, etc.), church events (the installation and death of bishops). New phenomena in chronicles are noted in the 15th century, when the Russian state was taking shape with its center in Moscow. The politics of Moscow leaders. princes was reflected in all-Russian chronicles. The most famous is the Vologda-Perm Chronicle. In the 17th century There was a gradual withering away of the chronicle form of storytelling. The word “chronicle” continues to be used by tradition even for such works that faintly resemble the Chronicles of former times . Concept: Interesting clarifications of A.A. Shakhmatov’s hypothesis were made by the Soviet researcher D.S. Likhachev. He rejected the possibility of existence in 1039. The most ancient Kievan corpus and connected the history of the chronicle with the specific struggle waged by the Kievan state in the 30-50s of the 11th century against the political and religious claims of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium sought to turn the church into its political agency, which threatened the independence of the Russian state. The struggle between Rus' and Byzantium reached particular intensity in the mid-11th century. The political struggle between Rus' and Byzantium turns into an open armed conflict: in 1050. Yaroslav sends troops to Constantinople led by his son Vladimir. Although Vladimir's campaign ended in defeat, Yaroslav in 1051. elevates the Russian priest Hilarion to the metropolitan throne. This further strengthened and united the Russian state. The researcher suggests that in the 30-40s in the 11th century, by order of Yaroslav the Wise, oral folk historical legends about the spread of Christianity were recorded. This cycle served as the future basis for the chronicle. D.S. Likhachev suggests that “Tales about the initial spread of Christianity in Rus'” were recorded by scribes of the Kyiv Metropolis at the St. Sophia Cathedral. Obviously, under the influence of Easter chronological tables-Paschals compiled in the monastery. Nikon presented his narration in the form of weather records - by ~ years ~. Created around 1073. Nikon's first Kiev-Pechersk vault included a large number of legends about the first Russians and their numerous campaigns against Constantinople. Thanks to this, the vault of 1073 acquired an even more anti-Byzantine orientation. In “Tales of the Spread of Christianity,” Nikon gave the chronicle a political edge. Thus, the first Kiev-Pechersk vault was an exponent of popular ideas. After Nikon's death, work on the chronicle continued continuously within the walls of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, and in 1095 the second Kiev-Pechersk vault appeared. The Second Kiev-Pechersk Code continued the propaganda of the ideas of the unity of the Russian land, begun by Nikon. This code also sharply condemns princely civil strife. Further, in the interests of Svyatopolk, on the basis of the second Kiev-Pechersk vault, Nester created the first edition of The Tale of Bygone Years. Under Vladimir Monomakh, Abbot Sylvester, on behalf of the Grand Duke, in 1116 compiled the second edition of the Tale of Bygone Years. This edition has come to us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle. In 1118, in the Vydubitsky Monastery, an unknown author created the third edition of the Tale of Bygone Years. It was brought up to 1117. This edition is best preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle. There are many differences in both hypotheses, but both of these theories prove that the beginning of chronicle writing in Rus' is an event of great importance. The originality of the composition. It can be roughly divided into 2 parts: I) a) On the division of the land between the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, Jophet); b) About the Babylonian pandemonium; c) On the division of a single native land into 72 peoples and languages; d) That the Slavic language “Slavensk” came from the tribe of Iophet; writes about the Slavs, their lands, customs; e) about the history of the glades; about the emergence of Kyiv; f) 852 from this moment Rus' is mentioned in the chronicles. This composition is called conical, i.e. from largest to smallest. Meaning of this part: 1) Nestor introduces the history of Rus' into world history. 2) He strengthens Nikon’s version of the origin of the princes. dynasty from the summoned Norman prince (Rurik). 3) Affirms the prince’s right to rule over all of Russia. 4) Approved the idea that all princes are brothers and must obey the eldest in their family - the Kyiv prince. 5) Approved idea independent princely power from Byzantium. II ) It is built differently - chronologically, by year, it is called enfilade: 1) It allows you to freely manage the material, introduce new legends, exclude old ones, and add to them. 2) Allows you to include heterogeneous material: by character and genre.
9. Abstraction and literary etiquette in DRL. Literary etiquette . Abstraction. This is a characteristic feature of all DR literature, because reflects the idealistic medieval model of worldview.1) In everything perishable, temporary, medieval man sees signs of the eternal, spiritual. 2) Characteristic for literature is the desire for abstraction, abstraction, the destruction of the concrete, the mathematical. 3) The work does not use: a) everyday, political, military, economic terminology (instead of “Prince” it is said “the ruler of that land”, “a certain nobleman”), b) A specific natural phenomenon, c) Proper names, if this episodic face (“a certain maiden”). 4) During this period, literature tries to isolate itself, to stand out from the series of everyday speech, hence the desire for the language of literature to be direct, elevated, and abstract. The word is perceived as a sacred word, cat. not available to everyone: a) fear used. bad, rude, ugly words; b) Often with a colloquial word there is its Greek equivalent (“the beast that is called arkuda hedgehog is said bear”); c) the manner of speaking about something known as if it were something unknown; d) a accumulation of synonyms and similar comparisons (“Be silent and put your finger on your lips”); e) The word affects not so much its logical side as its mysterious ambiguity; it fascinates with its consonances, it emphasizes the fragility of everything material and the repeatability, the eternity of everything spiritual. Etiquette. In Dr. In Rus', people's relationships with themselves and with God were subject to etiquette (customs, traditions, ceremonies). From life it turns into art. The writer strives to write as it should be, to subordinate to the literary canons everything that he wrote about, i.e. Literary etiquette is formed: 1) From ideas about how a person should act; 2) How the event should take place; 3) What words should be used to describe this. That. Before us is the etiquette of the world order. Etiquette depends not on the genre, but on the subject of the image (prince). Literary etiquette entailed: 1)traditionality of the literature (decorated the work); 2) The emergence of stable stylistic formulas. 3) Transferring excerpts from one work to another. 4) Stability of images, metaphors, comparisons. Gradually, the system of literary etiquette was destroyed from the 16th century, but the literature of the 18th century was completely freed from literary etiquette. because the generative lita changes. etiquette feudalism.
10. Genre Life. Life- genre of literature. A life is a short prose work that tells about the life of a saint (a person elevated to the rank of saint by the church). Hagiography is a strict genre, it is built according to a certain canon (set of rules), therefore the same moments are almost always present in the lives of different saints. The life begins with a description of the miracles that preceded the birth of the saint. Next comes a story about his childhood, which especially notes the moment of the saint’s inner enlightenment, his decision to devote his life to serving the Lord. The reader of the life learns about the good deeds of the saint, about his exploits. Lives often include episodes of the saint’s temptation. The description of the saint's death (often martyrdom) is followed by a story about the posthumous miracles that he performs. The meaning of the life is to show how the saint walked a life path similar to the life of Jesus Christ. That is why the saint is otherwise called the venerable. The Legend of Boris and Gleb.“The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus'” is not yet a life, but there is a description of exploits, stories about death (for example, “Boris and Gleb”). From it grows the first Russian hagiography, which does not have all the hagiographic features (the legend of Boris and Gleb). Researchers are still figuring out which of the legends about Boris and Gleb appeared later: a legend or a reading. The reading was written by Nestor - this is a correct life, a canonical form. An anonymous legend about Boris and Gleb grows from the chronicle history. The anonymous author expands and gives us a detailed description of how Boris and Gleb accepted death. There is no canonical introduction, their infancy and adolescence. Then a story about the sons of Vladimir, and then a story about the death of Boris and Gleb, who are killed by Svyatopolk, their brother (the son of Vladimir’s murdered brother). He was afraid of competition with his brothers as princes... the princely family was still perceived as one. But Yaroslav then defeated Svyatopolk. In this story, the focus is on the death event, which is described in great detail (telling how they feel). The brothers' monologues are very similar (we see that Boris guesses what is happening: he is smart, and Gleb cannot believe in fratricide). A feeling of melancholy is described (the fact that the children did not bury their father. For him - Gleb - his father is still alive; his experiences intensify; the psychological state is well described). Also, after the death of Gleb’s brother Boris, his experiences intensify even more. But this is also not a canonical life (that’s why it is so intense and emotional). Since it is not canonical, Nestor undertook to make it canonical. He added an introduction, a story about his youth (and since he knew little, he added what was needed: they read divine books, did not play with children). Nestor removed all the specifics (the name of the boy who tried to save Boris). Specifics belittled their actions and grounded them. When the specifics, sharpness, and emotionality were gone, we got so-called rhetorical exercises. Nestor also edited some of the miracles (removing social motives and specifics). This is an unsuccessful model for constructing a life.
11. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, its plot and composition.
At the end of the 11th century. Nestor wrote “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”. The hero of this original work of ancient Russian hagiographic literature is a monk, one of the founders and first abbots of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, who dedicated his life to building the monastery and serving the brethren and laity. The life has a characteristic three-part compositional structure: the author's preface - an introduction, the central part - a narration about the actions of the hero - and a conclusion. The main, narrative part falls into a series of completed episodes, connected not only by the central character, but also by other characters, his associates. The purpose of the life is to “praise” the hero. In accordance with this, Nestor selects only those facts that are “worthy”, i.e. contribute to the glorification of the hero. Nestor presents the collected material in the “Life” “in a series”, i.e. gives it a strict temporal sequence, constantly stipulating its deviations from the accepted order. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk contains rich material that allows us to judge the monastic life, economy, and the nature of the relationship between the abbot and the monks, the Grand Duke, boyars and ordinary laymen. Following the traditions of the Byzantine monastic life, Nestor consistently uses symbolic tropes in his work: Theodosius - “lamp”, “light”, “dawn”, “shepherd”, etc. According to the genre, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” can be classified as a hagiographic story, consisting of individual episodes united by the main character and the author-narrator. It differs from Byzantine works in its historicism, patriotic pathos and reflection of the peculiarities of Russian political and monastic life of the 11th century. In the further development of ancient Russian hagiography, the “Life” served as a model for the creation of the lives of Abraham of Smolensk and Sergius of Radonezh.
12. “Monumental historicism” of the literature of Ancient Rus'. 1) strives to write about everything from the point of view of a generalized meaning. 2) The writer depicts only the largest and most significant. 3) The subject is viewed from a great distance and temporal, spatial and hierarchical. Therefore, they talk about panoramic vision - this is the ability to combine various objects that are distant from each other in the presentation. feature of DR monumentalism is its mobility, lack of inertia. The writer and the character easily move from one point to another. Historicism is expressed in a special passion for the historical topic, i.e. both the event and the person are not fictitious, and also in that it is historical. events and persons are connected with other historical. events and persons. The “monumental historicism” of the literature of Ancient Rus' lies primarily in the fact that artistic generalization in Ancient Rus' is built in the overwhelming majority of cases on the basis of a single specific historical fact. New works of literature of Ancient Rus' are always attached to a specific historical event, to a specific historical person. These are stories about battles (about victories and defeats), about princely crimes, about walking in. the holy land and simply about real people: most often about saints and prince-commanders. But there are no new works on clearly fictional subjects. Fiction, from a medieval point of view, is equal to a lie, and any lie is unacceptable.
13. Eloquence in Ancient Rus'. Its types. "Teachings" by Vladimir Monomakh
12th century - The Golden Age of Old Russian eloquence. In literature of the 17th century. oratorical eloquence is limited to the ecclesiastical sphere. In the 2nd half. 19th century eloquence manifests itself as oratory in court (jury). 11th-12th centuries: During this period, both secular and spiritual eloquence developed. These reminders can be divided into 2 categories: A) Didactic (instructive) conversations and teachings - Vladimir Monomakh, “teaching to the children” B) Epidictic (solemn), the so-called “words” of the author’s appearance - Metropolitan Hilarion and Kirill of Turov "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh": 1053-1125 years of life of Monomakh. During his reign, internecine wars ceased. He was an active participant in the congress in Lyubech. In 1094 he voluntarily ceded the throne of Chernigov to Oleg Svyatoslavich. From 1113 to 1125 he was the Prince of Kyiv. The teaching refers to 1117-1125; it came down in the only PVL list in the Laurentian Chronicle. Independent works are also united under this title: A) Teachings to children: an appeal to children and to those who hear B) Autobiography C) Letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich, who was guilty of the death of Monomakh’s youngest son Izyaslav D) Prayer The lesson is built: Introduction(appeal to children), self-deprecation -- central part(didactic), includes About the mercy of God, About the need for the victory of good over evil, About the need for repentance, tears and mercy, About the beauty of the world, About the benefits of prayer. Practical instructions: what a prince should do - take care of the state, its unity and peace, keep oaths and contracts, take care of the welfare of the church, take care of poor orphans and widows. A moral person must work, because... laziness is the main vice. Monomakh warned against lies, fornication and drunkenness, and said that the prince should be generous. Autobiography – reinforces his views and ideas by personal example; says that he participated in 83 military campaigns. One should not be afraid of death and boldly perform a man's work. Letter: Monomakh is faithful to the principles of brotherly love and peacefulness and calls for reconciliation, demonstrates generosity and state. wisdom. He mourns his son as a father and asks for the release of his daughter-in-law to mourn the death of her husband. conclusions: Monomakh appears as a highly educated person, quotes the Psalter, the works of Basil the Great, and the acts of the apostles. He speaks different styles and uses them depending on the genre and topic. So in the Instruction high vocabulary is used, and in the autobiography - colloquial
14. Solemn eloquence, “The Sermon on Law and Grace.”
The 11th - 12th centuries are called the “golden age” of Russian oratory. Epidictic eloquence occupies a leading place in literature. Speeches (words) in Rus' were not pronounced directly in front of an audience (compare with the oral improvisation of Ancient Greece and Rome), but were written and distributed in numerous handwritten copies. Features of epidictic texts: content - discussion of global problems of socio-political coverage, “pathetic lyrics” (the term of I. P. Eremin). In contrast to teachings and conversations, these works were designated by the term “word”. The writer was required to strictly adhere to the rules and imitate ancient models. The composition, style, and language of the work were carefully worked out. Hilarion is the first Russian metropolitan. “The Word...” is an ecclesiastical and political treatise in which the Russian land and princes were glorified. It differs in content, form, and language. Built according to a clear logical plan and addressed to the church elite. Composition: 1. Theological reasoning - the contrast between Hagar and Sarah emphasizes that Judaism was born under the conditions of a slave system. Freedom came with Christianity. This emphasizes the equality of all people. Hilarion writes not just about equality, but about the advantage of young nations. "New teaching - new bellows." Hilarion equates the Russian tsars with the Byzantine ones, puts Vladimir, John the Theologian, Thomas, etc. on a par. 2. Praise to Vladimir. 3. Prayerful appeal to God. The main antithesis is the struggle between truth and error. Sounds life-affirming.
15. History of the discovery and meaning of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” . “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was discovered by the collector of ancient Russian manuscripts A. I. Musin-Pushkin in the late 80s and early 90s of the 18th century. He acquired from Archimandrite Joel, abbot of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery abolished by Catherine II, a handwritten collection, which, judging by the description, was written in the 16th century. in the north-west of Rus' (in the area of Pskov or Novgorod). The collection included works of a secular nature: “Chronograph”; “Vremennik, which condemns the chronicles of Russian princes and the Russian land”; “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and “Devgenie’s Deed.” The first mention of the discovery of Musin-Pushkin was made in 1792 by journalist and playwright P. A. Plavilshchikov. At the beginning of 1797, M. M. Kheraskov, in a note to the 16th song of the poem “Vladimir,” informed readers about the found work of ancient writing. In October 1797, in the Hamburg magazine “SpectateurduNord” N.M. Karamzin published a note reporting the discovery of “a song of Igor’s warriors, which can be compared with the best Ossian poems.” To work on the manuscript, Musin-Pushkin attracted scientists A.F. Malinovsky, N.N. Bantysh-Kamensky and N.M. Karamzin as a consultant. Thanks to their work, the text of the Lay was published in 1800 with a translation into modern Russian, an introductory article and notes. In 1812, the manuscript collection of Musin-Pushkin perished in the Moscow fire. In the hands of researchers, only the printed text and extracts made from the manuscript by its first publishers remained. Meaning.“The Word...” is a call for unification on the eve of the Tatar invasion. Yes, the princes, blinded by the struggle for power, did not heed the call, did not hear the Russian Boyan. But the idea of unity, so beautifully embodied in the poem, inspired generations of Russians to fight for the freedom of their land against the Tatar yoke. The author strives to achieve political goals. Political topicality and a highly artistic folk form of expression ensured “The Word...” immortality throughout the centuries. It was popular among contemporaries and influenced the subsequent development of our literature. The author of “Zadonshchina” addressed the “Word…”, glorifying the victory of the Russian people on the Kulikovo field. For us, the poem is a wonderful monument of Russian culture, historical evidence. And the fact that even after 800 years we do not remain indifferent when reading it, perhaps, is the main meaning of this work. Since the opening and especially the publication of “S. about P.I." begins new stage in the literary fate of the monument: it not only becomes the focus of attention of specialist researchers, but also resurrects in its living artistic effectiveness: it wins the recognition of major poets and critics (Pushkin, Belinsky, etc.), becomes the object of imitations 908 and free poetic translations , inspires artists from other fields of art (painting, music).
16. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Historical background and main idea. The poem talks about the events that most worried people in the 12th century. About the fight against the Polovtsians, the “filthy” ones who ravaged the Russian land. The nomadic Cumans lived in the southeast of Rus'. Robbery was an important source of enrichment for their princes and warriors. They often went on campaigns on their fast horses, burned and destroyed cities and villages, took Russians captive to sell them at slave markets in the Crimea, and trampled crops. The Russian princes also went against them and often defeated their enemies. But there was no unity among them, and the Polovtsians took advantage of this. The cousin of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav, the prince of Novgorod-Seversky, Igor, did not want to participate in the campaign along with other princes. He decided to achieve sole glory for himself and honor for his soldiers. He invited his brother Vsevolod and gathered a squad. Everyone was in a joyful mood. First, the Russians defeated the Polovtsians. “Early on Friday morning they crushed the filthy Polovtsian regiments.” Loot captured. Igor now hopes to scoop up water from the Don with his helmet. The Russians move further into the steppes. But the joy of the Russians was premature. The main forces of the nomads, led by Khan Konchak, approached Igor’s squad like an ominous cloud. The Russian knights fight steadfastly, but die one by one under the pressure of superior forces. Igor himself is captured. There are no more defenders, the road to Rus' is now open to the filthy. While Igor’s squad was fighting bravely, Prince Svyatoslav had a prophetic dream that alarmed him. Having learned about the defeat of Igor and Vsevolod, he bitterly reproaches his brothers for their rash step. The “Golden Word” is addressed by the prince to all the strong rulers of the Russian principalities with a call to work together - as before, under Vladimir Monomakh - to fight against the Polovtsians, to defend their homeland. He wants military unity of the Russian lands in the face of an always formidable and unexpected danger. The author puts his cherished thought, pain and hope into the mouth of Svyatoslav. And far away on Putivl the beautiful Yaroslavna is crying. She seemed to have forgotten that a Christian offers her prayer to the ancient Slavic gods in such a pagan way. And her crying is such a poetic place in the poem that it will forever excite people. Igor languishes in captivity. Nothing is dear to him except freedom. To take revenge, to wash away the shame - this is his main desire. He knows that his wife and residents are eagerly waiting for him hometown and Russian princes. Finally he manages to escape. Igor goes to Kyiv. The older brother forgives him, he knows that Igor will still serve his native land. “It is hard for a head without shoulders, for grief and a body without a head. So is the Russian land without Igor.” These events took place back in 1185. main idea“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is that all of Rus' should be united, and not divided into many small principalities. Such fragmentation inevitably leads a strong state to inevitable death. Using the example of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky, it is shown that one cannot defeat a major enemy alone. This can only be done by joint efforts. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” turned out to be a prophetic work. It predicted the further historical development of Russia in the subsequent era.
17. The problem of the genre “Tales of Igor’s Campaign.” The question of the genre of “The Lay” also turns out to be very complex. The author of the monument cannot help us: he himself calls his work either a “word” (“The Lay of Igor’s sword…”), or a “song” (“These songs began according to the epics of this time...” Doesn’t have “ The Word" analogies among other monuments of ancient Russian literature. Consequently, this is either a work that is exceptional in its genre originality, or is a representative of a special genre, the monuments of which have not reached us, since this genre, combining the features of the book "word" and an epic work, was not traditional. Perhaps works of this genre, intended primarily for oral performance, were rarely recorded at all. D. S. Likhachev writes that the appearance of such monuments, “standing on the border of literature and folklore” (and this is exactly what “The Lay” is) , could be caused by the following circumstance: In connection with the formation of a feudal state occurring at an accelerated pace, “a new historical and patriotic self-awareness is emerging, which requires special genre forms of expression. Neither the system of folklore genres nor the system of Byzantine-Slavic literary genres that passed to Rus' were adaptable to express new themes. The first due to its archaic nature, the second due to its predominant churchliness.” This was the prerequisite for the creation of new genres - “genres of political journalism, genres glorifying love for one’s native country, lyric-epic genres.” The special genre nature of the “Lay” had a great influence on his poetics: the “Lay” combines the principles of the poetics of the style of monumental historicism (ceremonialism in the depiction of heroes, techniques characteristic of the genre of solemn words) and the poetics of folklore (in the depiction of nature, in the depiction of the feelings of the hero’s wife , in a combination of folklore genres - “glory” and “crying”). Folklore elements turn out to be organically fused with bookish elements in The Lay.
19. The work of Kirill Turovsky. Lyrical-dramatic character of “Words”. Elements of a symbolic landscape. Our most talented and prolific representative of solemn church eloquence was in the second half of the 12th century. Kirill Turovsky, who revealed himself as a very extraordinary poet in the prayers he composed. Kirill, the son of wealthy parents, was born in Turov, the capital city of the Turov principality, neighboring Kiev. Early on he became an ascetic monk and intensely devoted himself to book reading and exposition of the “divine scriptures.” The fame of him spread throughout the Turov land, and, at the insistence of the prince and the people, he was appointed Bishop of Turov. Undoubtedly, eight “words” written on various church holidays, three teachings, 30 prayers and two canons can be considered to belong to Cyril of Turov. 2. “Words” of Cyril of Turov are known mainly as part of the so-called “Chrysostom” and “Celebrants” - collections containing contains sermons and teachings dedicated to especially solemn holidays and belonging mainly to the Byzantine church fathers - John Chrysostom, Gregory the Theologian, Fyodor the Studite, Cyril of Alexandria and others. The works of Cyril of Turov were also known among the southern Slavs. Kirill Turovsky, in his works that have come down to us, almost completely did not respond to the contemporary topic of the day and did not reveal journalistic inclinations in himself to the same extent as Hilarion. All sermons of Kirill of Turov represent a lyrical and often dramatically colored praise of the holiday, in which its religious meaning is clarified through allegories and symbolic parallels and connections. Having experienced influence in this regard mainly from the Byzantine church fathers and orators, Kirill of Turov was not, however, a simple imitator who adopted other people’s models; he exhibits genuine creative talent and undeniable poetic animation. The sermons of Kirill of Turov are characterized by symbolism and allegorism, as well as a significant saturation of their tropes and figures - metaphor, personification, antithesis, rhetorical questions and exclamations. Kirill Turovsky in his sermons often moves from lyrical praise of the holiday to a narration about the event itself associated with the holiday, dramatizing this narrative by introducing monologues, dialogues, poetic laments and depicting the events themselves as if they were happening at the present time. This dramatization of the narrative is especially strong in the “Tale of the Paralytic,” which presents a dialogue between Christ and the paralytic he healed. Kirill Turovsky used in his sermons the technique of allegory - parables (“The Parable of the Humanity of Soul and Body” and “The Parable of the White Man”).
18. Poetics of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”, composition, plot, role of nature. Plot-compositional the design of “The Lay” is unique; it does not obey the canon of any of the known genres of ancient Russian literature. Also, the construction of the monument is distinguished by artistic perfection and expediency. The composition text is usually divided into 3 parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introduction is lyrical in nature. The author addresses the audience, talks about the purpose of writing the Lay, and recalls Boyan, who glorified the deeds of the princes. The author points to 2 time layers that determine the chronological framework of the story: “from old Vladimir to present Igor,” we are most likely talking about Vladimir Monomakh, because the idea of the word was relevant precisely during his reign. There is already a desire for journalisticism, for the relevance of the work. The central part of the work is divided into 3 subparts: the plot - Igor’s preparation for the battle, a solar eclipse, 2 battles with the Polovtsians; a combination of lyrical and lyrical-journalistic fragments - Svyatoslav’s dream, the interpretation of this dream, Svyatoslav’s “Golden Word”, at the end, in part, the idea that the Russian princes need unity to fight not only the Polovtsians, but also all external enemies. Here a historical digression appears about Vseslav, an older contemporary of Monomakh, who participated in numerous strife, but never achieved success. The third subpart connects the lyrical fragment - Yaroslavna's lament - with the end of the plot - the story of Igor's escape from captivity, where there are many landscape sketches describing the natural forces helping Igor. Conclusion - praise to Igor. With the help of lyrical fragments and historical digressions, the author managed to show the harmful influence of the uncoordinated actions of the princes on the fate of Rus'. The main idea of “The Lay” is expressed in the central part, when the action takes place in Kyiv. Kyiv is thought of as the unifying principle of the Russian princes. Landscapes occupy the most important place in the visual system of the Lay. They can be divided into 3 groups: dynamic, symbolic, static. Dynamic (promoting or opposing heroes) is used in subparts 1 and 3; static (denoting the time of day or recording some state of nature) appear there, there are very few of them; symbolic ones are associated only with Igor’s campaign and are dominated by images of luminaries. The composition “Words” combines both lyrical and epic principles, which determines its originality. Poetics. D. S. Likhachev specifically focused on the originality of the poetics of the “Word”, associated with the aesthetic ideas of the 12th century, in particular with the poetics of monumental historicism. “Slovo” has many features of this style. This is also his characteristic “landscape vision”: the author of the “Lay” covers the most distant principalities with his calls and appeals, Div calls out on the top of a tree, addressing the vast expanses of the Polovtsian land, on the battlefield near the Kayala River the clouds come “from the sea itself.” This is the speed of movement of the heroes as a symbol of their power over space. Typical specifically for the poetics of the 11th-12th centuries. ceremonial positions of princes. Finally, the temporal distances in the Lay are typical for this era: it does not recall the events of the 12th century. (before Igor’s campaign), but he willingly turns to the deeds of his ancestors - grandfathers and great-grandfathers. At the same time, if we tried to compare the poetics of “The Lay” with the poetics of Russian literature of the 18th century, with the attitude of Russian writers of that time to folklore, to ancient Russian paganism, to methods of depicting heroes, etc., then in this case it will turn out that that the “Word” cannot fit into the system of aesthetic ideas of this time. The role of nature. Since ancient times, nature has been the object of attention of ancient literature. But every historical era it was understood differently. The author of “The Word…” pays special attention to the story of natural phenomena. It is impossible not to notice that some descriptions of nature in the “Word ...” are quite detailed, detailed, and some are brief. In the detailed ones, a variety of natural phenomena are described in detail, the feelings of the people who observe them are conveyed. For example, painting a picture of a solar eclipse (two large stanzas are dedicated to the story about this in the poetic arrangement of N. Zabolotsky), the author of “The Word...” combines both a story about a natural phenomenon and describes fear, confusion of people, restless behavior of animals and birds. Detailed descriptions nature throughout the work have a similar composition. First, some event occurs, and then it is supported by a description of nature. The result is an emotionally rich episode in which the author not only
talks about a certain event, but also creates an image of it, a picturesque picture
20. “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” as a story about the Tatar invasion. In the first quarter of the 13th century. Rus' suffered a national tragedy - the invasion of hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Russian chronicles, stories, lives, sermons tell about the invasion of nomads, the destruction of cities, the death or captivity of the population, as well as the desolation of Russia after the invasion of the enemy, when the cities lay in ruins, and “the villages... were desolate and now overgrown with forests.” , and even more convincingly and impartially - data obtained by archaeologists and historians of material culture. The Tale of the Battle of Kalka is a chronicle story telling about the first clash between the Russians and the Mongol-Tatars. In 1223, a thirty-thousand-strong detachment of Mongol-Tatars led by Jebe and Subedei entered the steppe through Transcaucasia and defeated the Cumans, who fled across the Dnieper. The Russian princes at the congress in Kyiv decided to help the Polovtsians, and the coalition, consisting of most of the then princes with the exception of Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky, set out on a campaign. However, due to feudal strife, the Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a severe defeat in the battle with the Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. The detailed version of P. is based on a southern Russian chronicle story; according to D. Fennell, this is the chronicle of Mstislav Romanovich, the Kyiv Grand Duke (which, according to the scientist, was also used in the Laurentian Chronicle). The story of the battle on Kalka is characterized by a sympathetic attitude towards Grand Duke Mstislav Romanovich, who did not flee, but together with his son-in-law Andrei and Prince Alexander Dubrovsky built a fence of stakes on the high bank of the Kalka and courageously defended himself until he was treacherously handed over to the Mongolians. Tatars A sharply hostile attitude towards the Polovtsians and Brodniks is natural for the South Russian chronicler. The very nature of the narrative testifies against the Novgorod origin of this version. The Word about the Death of the Russian Land is an excerpt from a completely lost work dedicated to the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'. This passage has come to us in two copies, not as an independent text, but as an introduction to the first edition of the Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky. The fragment that has reached us is either the introduction or the first part of the work about the “destruction of the Russian land” - about the horrors of the Batyevism, about the defeat of the Russian principalities by the Mongol-Tatars. The surviving text describes the former beauty and wealth of the Russian land, its former political power. This nature of the introduction to the text, which was supposed to tell about the sorrows and troubles of the country, is not accidental. This feature of S. finds a typological correspondence with the works of ancient and medieval literature, in which praise of greatness and glory is found native land. The poem is close in poetic structure and ideological terms to The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Both of these works are distinguished by high patriotism, a heightened sense of national identity, an exaggeration of the strength and military valor of the warrior prince, a lyrical perception of nature, and the rhythmic structure of the text. Both monuments are close in their combination of praise and lamentation: praise for the past greatness of the country, lamentation for its troubles in the present. S., as is known, was reflected in several monuments of ancient Russian literature - the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin used the images of S., creating his own version of “Zadonshchina” (late 70s of the 15th century), reminiscences from the “Lay” are available in edition of Andrey Yuryev's Life of Theodore of Yaroslavl (second half of the 15th century) and in the Degree Book (60s of the 16th century).
21: “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”
This story tells about the events of 1257. This event is briefly described in the Novgorod Chronicle of the 13th century, then this story began to become overgrown with legends. In the 14th century supplemented by the words of the leader Ingvar Ingorevich, and in the 15th century - a song about Evpatiy Kolovrat. The story itself has survived in many copies, but the oldest is not earlier than the 16th century. Genre: typical war story. There is no fiction in it, but there is already an artistic generalization, which led to the distortion of historical events (Both living and dead princes - David of Murom died in 1228, and Vsevolod of Pronsky in 1208); the author makes everyone brothers: This is a union of both the living and the dead. They were united into a single fraternal army, all the princes died. This is close to the epic legends about the death of heroes. Plot: The story begins with the story of the death of Fyodor Yuryevich and his wife Eupraxia with their son, who at first glance has nothing to do with the plot. However, the conclusions from this story are important: all attempts to appease the enemy and reconcile with him are useless, because... you will have to completely submit to his will. We must fight! And the author skillfully talks about this tragic battle, when Ryazan with all its inhabitants was destroyed and all the princes died. The author creates the image of “Boy-Pir”. By this he emphasizes the equality and unity of all. The refrain (chorus) is the idea that everyone needs to drink the cup of death. A common cup of death for those who did not recognize equality in politics. life, who strived for internecine enmity. Because of the princes, the whole city, all the people, suffer. Style: Events are presented slowly and laconically, which emphasizes the significance of the event, and brevity adds dynamism to the narrative. Monumentality is manifested in the fact that the author pays attention to the little things, choosing bright, capacious symbolic images despite the fact that the story is small in volume.
22: “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.” Alexander Yaroslavich (born around 1220, died in 1263) was the Prince of Novgorod from 1236 to 1251, and the Grand Duke of Vladimir from 1252 to 1263. And during the years of his reign in Novgorod, and as a Grand Duke, Alexander Yaroslavich led the fight of Rus' against the German-Swedish invaders.
In 1240, Swedish knights invaded the northwestern lands of Rus'. They entered the Neva River on ships and stopped at the mouth of its tributary, the Izhora River (currently the village of Ust-Izhora near Leningrad is located in this place, according to other ideas - the Alexander Nevsky Lavra). With a small squad, Alexander Yaroslavich attacked enemy forces on June 15, 1240 and won a brilliant victory over a numerous enemy. Hence Alexander's nickname - Nevsky. In 1241 -1242 Alexander Nevsky led the fight against the troops of the Livonian knights who captured Pskov and Novgorod lands. On April 5, 1242, a decisive battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipus, ending in the complete defeat of the invaders - the famous Battle of the Ice.
Nevsky maintained peaceful relations with the Golden Horde. He freed his lands from the obligation to supply people to the ZO army. A) The work does not have a stable title! (Life of A.N., Tale of the Life of A.N., Lay of the Life of A.N.) This indicates the destruction of the genre canon. B) the author partially observes the hagiographical canon - humiliation of the author, the distance between him and the prince - birth from pious parents - a posthumous miracle - constant digressions of a rhetorical nature, the prince’s prayers - the activity of Alexander Yaroslavich appears in a transformed form, not in everyday details, but in hagiographical details image. C) Image, character of A.N. diverse: - Christian virtues are emphasized (quiet, meek, humble); Old and New Testament traditions are used (A.N. is compared with beautiful Joseph, wise Solomon, strong Samson). This gives a solemn character. - military valor is emphasized, he is a courageous, invincible, impetuous commander, selfless and merciless. His warriors are the same. – the statesmanship of A.N. is emphasized. The characterization combines church and secular plans, this is the originality of the work. D) The image of Al-ra, despite the contradictory characteristics, does not disintegrate. The attitude is important: the author personally knew Al-ra. Main idea: A.N. - standard for the image of Russian princes
23. Genre of walking. "The Walk of Abbot Daniel." Walking. Travel genre. It arose after the adoption of Christianity. We need to make sure of what is written about. Many people wanted to become pilgrims, so pilgrimages to Constantinople began. People wonder eternal questions(“+”), but great damage to the economy (“-”). The church harshly characterized this movement: according to the church, this is an attack on its mission, the church is concerned about what is happening (the fields are abandoned). Many texts condemned pilgrimage. The Church convinces us that there is no need to go far at all, but to read the description of the holy places. Hegumen Daniel was the first to write. There is a hypothesis (h): Daniel’s goal is political; Daniel carried out a diplomatic mission from the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk. At this time, there is the state of the Crusaders with King Baldwin, his support is just right (the beginning of the 12th century, the struggle with Monomakh, who was in full force, + the authority of Constantinople). Svyatopolk needed to put someone behind his back (but he failed). Many documents prove this goal, according to which this hypothesis is quite probable. First, he is respected; Daniel alone is led to the Holy Sepulcher and to the Pillar of David. Daniel himself says that he “applied, and they let him in” - everything is much simpler. Secondly: “The Walking of Hegumen Daniil” - there was a reconstruction of the memorial list: the list is different in different copies, so we turn to the protographer, and there (in the memorial list) there are all the senior, independent princes, so Daniil feels like an intercessor (representative) of the entire Russian land. All these arguments generally confirm everything. Most likely, Daniil is the abbot of one of the southern Russian (Chernigov) monasteries. Its associations are similar to Russian. The most important thing that we see in the text is a special view of the world thanks to the composition. The composition is justified by purpose. Each chapter intersects past and present. Daniel is inquisitive and wants to make sure of everything. His look is the look of a person who is happy to be convinced that everything he believes in really exists. Continuity of past and present, bridge. He is a lively, curious person. This is confirmed by the details he describes. He's interested in everything. At the same time, he is a representative of the entire Russian land and a seer of the world. This “Walking” is a kind of guide.
24. “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. Genre and style originality. 1) An interesting and mysterious monument of Russian literature. It was written in the 12th century. 13th century. It is not known who Daniel is. 2) The monument is unique in that: a) it was executed in the form of a petition to the prince from prison, i.e. lack of demand. b) has the form of comic messages. c) Daniel wants to win the prince’s favor and is counting on first of all on your mind, on knowledge of life (worldly wisdom): “If I am not very brave in the army, then I am strong in my words.” Through his works he demonstrates his wisdom and knowledge, and emphasizes that this is his personal merit. He likens himself to a bee, a cat. “collects honey - wisdom” from many flowers. 3) The monument is woven from witty sayings and aphorisms, citing folk parables, proverbs, and sayings. Demonstrates his erudition. Uses many quotations from the Psalter, the parables of Solomon, and the Song of Songs. He likens himself to a cursed fig tree (a tree that bears fruit - smoki) - a cursed tree, Adam, expelled from paradise, the prodigal son, i.e. prayer is abstract in nature. It is rhetorical and hyperbolic. 4) Daniel also freely refers to everyday vocabulary. He seems to flaunt rudeness, a deliberate reduction in style: “A girl destroys her beauty through fornication, and a husband destroys his honor through tatboi (robbery).” That. The style of prayer combines folk and bookish, deliberate rudeness goes back to buffoon traditions. Prayer is a skillful verbal mosaic, combining praise, teaching, and reproof. Daniel stands up for recognition of his human dignity, independence from social and financial status.
26. Pre-revival in Russian culture 14-15th century.
1. Growth of the personal principle, but if in Zap. In Europe, this process is associated with the secularization of literature, then in the East and South-East of Europe, within church culture.
2. First of all, the inner life of a person is of interest.
3. A new style appears, which is called. Ornamental style or “weaving words”
Its features: - changes in expressiveness, emotionality, learning and solemnity.
Weaving words is weaving wreaths of glory, hence the solemnity of the style.
The context develops (i.e., a clear focus on more ancient literary texts)
New meanings are extracted from a combination of words.
There is a game with words, the rhythm of words.
As a result, this contributed to the development of lit. I, enriching the vocabulary of the language
27. The uniqueness of the culture of this time:
Since the mid-14th century, cultural ties with the Balkan countries, namely Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia, were restored.
That. 1.Russian culture became involved in the cultural development of Europe
2. A large number of new translations and new books, both theological and literary, are being transferred to Rus'.
3. centers of mental cultural communication appear, namely Athos, Constantinople, Serbia, Bulgaria, in cat. A unified worldview concept was developed.
4. there is an awareness of the uniqueness of the individual and the era. In the literature of the pre-Mongol era, time is cyclical, i.e. day - night, life - death - everything replaces each other. And in the 14th century, the changeability of the world and man was revealed. The world is perceived in time (it is at this time that clocks appear in Moscow). Litera represents not a change of events, but a change of states.
5. The main theme is the theme of coordination of efforts and moral quest. If in the pre-Mongol period unity was thought of as external unification, then during this period internal unity was important. This is manifested in changes in the color scheme of icons and architecture. There is a play with colors, a merging of colors, shades of the same color...
The main historical event was the victory on the Kulikovo Field. Moscow is gradually becoming the center of Dm. Donskoy pursued the idea that Moscow is the heir to Vlad. principalities. The traditions of Vladimir writing and chronicles, the Vladimir Shrine, and icons are transferred there. The main idea is to collect all the Kyiv inheritance. This was achieved in the second half of the 17th century and the creation of a powerful independent state. Therefore, literature sought to restore old traditions when Russia was independent. Pre-Mongolian literature becomes a model, images and ideas are borrowed. New works are created on this basis.
28: Historical situation of the 14th century.
The main historical event is the Battle of Kulikovo and the victory in it. Moscow is gradually becoming the center and Dmitry Donskoy is pursuing the idea that Moscow is the heir to the Vladimir principality. The traditions of Vladimir writing and chronicles, Vladimir shrines, and icons are transferred there. The main idea is to collect the entire Kyiv inheritance (this was accomplished in the 2nd half of the 17th century) and create a powerful independent state. Therefore, literature sought to restore old traditions. Pre-Mongolian literature becomes a model: images and ideas are borrowed, and new works are created on this basis. Works of the Kulikovo cycle: Many works are devoted to this historical event: -- “Long chronicle story”, where the circumstances are described in detail and names are listed. – “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, late 15th century, this is: the central monument of the Kulikovo cycle; a fascinating story about the battle on September 8th, which coincides with the birth of the Virgin Mary; there are a number of details that are not recorded anywhere (about the action of the ambush regiment, about Dmitry Ivanovich’s pilgrimage to the Trinity Monastery, about the fact that 2 monks were sent to the sandpiper battle); there are anachronisms that indicate that the legend was written at the end of the 15th century (the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, and not Jagiello, is named as Mamai’s ally; Metropolitan Cyprian, who was not in Moscow at that time, is also named as a participant in the events. Etc.) Style “Legends” » is interesting: the influence of folklore is felt (epithets, metaphors), there is “weaving of words” (some episodes sound solemn), there is a description in a chronicle style.
29. “Zadonshchina.” Zadonshchina - a poetic story about the Battle of Kulikovo - “Zadonshchina” has come down to us in six copies and two editions. It was written at the end of the 14th century. The author of this work was usually called Sophony, a Bryansk boyar who later became a priest. The use of the narrative plan and artistic techniques of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in “Zadonshchina” is determined by the entire ideological and artistic concept of this work. Just like in The Lay, in Zadonshchina the course of historical events is not described in detail. The main attention is paid to their meaning and evaluation. If Igor’s defeat on Kayal (in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”) is the result of feudal strife, the lack of unity of action, then the victory on the Kulikovsky field is the result of overcoming discord, the result of the unity of Russian forces led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich. Zadonshchina consists of two parts: “pity” and “praise” (in
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - three parts. Just like in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” “Zadonshchina” begins with a short introduction, it defines the main theme of the work - to glorify, to give “praise” to Dmitry Ivanovich, his brother Vladimir Andreevich and “to bring sorrow to eastern country" Thus, in “Zadonshchina” a genealogical connection of the first Kyiv princes is immediately established. The military valor and courage of the Moscow princes are characterized in “Zadonshchina” with the help of the same artistic techniques as in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”; melodiousness brings it closer to the tale style. The first part of “Zadonshchina” is “pity”, opens bright paintings the gathering of Russian troops, their entry into the campaign, the beginning of the battle and their defeat. Nature in “Zadonshchina” is on the side of the Russian troops and foreshadows the defeat of the “filthy” ones. The central place is given to the depiction of the terrible battle on the Kulikovo field. The first half of the battle ends with the defeat of the Russians. The second part of “Zadonshchina”, “praise”, is devoted to a description of the victory won by the Russian army when the regiment of governor Dmitry Bobrok Volynets entered the battle. The style of the narrative of “Zadonshchina” is joyful, major, excitedly pathetic. “Zadonshchina” ends with a solemn speech by Dmitry Ivanovich “on the bones” of fallen soldiers. Compared to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” pagan mythological images are completely absent in Zadonshchina, but religious-Christian motifs are significantly strengthened, this indicates the increased role of the church in the life of the Moscow state. As in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” in “Zadonshchina” the techniques and poetic images of folk poetry and song rhythms are widely used. The ideological concept of “Zadonshchina” is associated with the poeticization of the political role of Moscow and the Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde. The author directed all his pathos towards promoting the idea of unity, the unity of all the forces of the Russian land around Moscow, emphasizing in every possible way that only thanks to unity was a historical victory won, and the princes and Russian wines gained for themselves “honor and a glorious name.”
30. “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh.” Compositional structure and style features . The Life of Sergius of Radonezh is a hagiographic monument dedicated to the famous church and socio-political figure of Rus' in the second half of the 14th century. Sergius of Radonezh (in the world - Bartholomew Kirillovich; born around 1321/1322 - died on September 25, 1391/1392), the creator and abbot of the Trinity (later Trinity-Sergius) Monastery near Moscow. The main source of biographical information about Sergius of Radonezh is the oldest editions of his life. The origin of Sergius' nickname - Radonezh - is associated with the city of Radonezh, where his father, a boyar of the Rostov principality who went bankrupt under Ivan Kalita, fled with his family. The oldest edition of the journal was created by Epiphanius the Wise, a contemporary and student of Sergius, 26 years after his death, i.e., in 1417-1418. With the usual care of Epiphanius, he wrote it on the basis of documentary data he had collected over 20 years, and records he had made. (“scrolls” “for the sake of reserve”), their memories and eyewitness accounts. Epiphanius masterfully applied in his work a rhetorically sophisticated style of “weaving words”, with its inherent chains of various epithets, comparisons, and an abundance of rhetorical figures, while combining stylistic sophistication with clarity and dynamism plot development and sometimes with an unusually simple language, close to everyday conversation. Noting the compositional harmony and organic unity of the Epiphanius edition, Y. Alissandratos establishes the symmetry of 9 paired episodes of the work relative to its compositional center. Epiphanius's edition of Zh. ended with the death of Sergius. In the Epifanievsky edition, so rich in historical realities, historical and legendary information was organically merged, and the presentation of events (as V. O. Klyuchevsky noted) was conducted not by years, but by events (in accordance with folk dating), which makes it difficult to establish the true relationship of events and the synchronicity of a number of facts. In addition, it should be taken into account that the original form of the book (both in its oldest edition, created by Epiphanius, and in its subsequent revisions by Pachomius the Serb) has not been preserved.
31: “The Life of Stephen of Perm” by Epiphanius the Wise. Principles of depicting a person.
The style of the second South Slavic influence is most conveniently examined using the example of the works of outstanding hagiographers of the late XIV-XV centuries. - Epiphany of the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes. Epiphanius the Wise (died in 1420) entered the history of literature primarily as the author of two extensive lives - “The Life of Stephen of Perm” (the bishop of Perm, who baptized the Komi and created an alphabet for them in their native language), written at the end of the 14th century, and "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh", created in 1417-1418. The basic principle from which Epiphanius the Wise proceeds in his work is that the hagiographer, describing the life of a saint, must by all means show the exclusivity of his hero, the greatness of his feat, the detachment of his actions from everything ordinary and earthly. Hence the desire for an emotional, bright, decorated language that differs from everyday speech. The Lives of Epiphanius are filled with quotations from the Holy Scriptures, for the feat of his heroes should find analogies in biblical history. Illustrating the writing style of Epiphanius the Wise, researchers most often turn to his “Life of Stephen of Perm”, and within this life - to the famous praise of Stephen, in which the art of “weaving words” finds, perhaps, its most vivid expression. The Life of Stephen of Perm, created by the monk of the Trinity Monastery Epiphanius the Wise, is one of the most famous works of ancient Russian literature, arousing interest among a variety of scientists for many decades. The history of languages, lands and countries in the Life begins with the post-Flood time and continues until the death of Stephen. Epiphanius created the most developed history of peoples in the culture of medieval Rus'. Just as the description of the tribes in the Tale of Bygone Years marked the constitution of the ancient Rus' that united them, Epiphaniev’s work marked the beginning of the formation of multi-ethnic Russia. “Life” is a biography of Stephen of Perm from his birth to death, and the author’s focus is on the missionary feat of the Saint. The central place in the “Life” is given to the description of Stephen’s actions to bring his feat to life. First of all, these are his tireless prayers, the texts of which are given in the book, and inexhaustible hard work. The struggle between pagan and Christian principles is the main contrast and conflict in the book. The modern reading of the “Tale of Stephen of Perm” calls us all to comprehend the feat of the Saint, to correct ourselves in his image and likeness, to the Russian idea of salvation and to feasible courageous missionary activity among the currently numerous atheists and pagans, remembering the words of the Apostle Paul, that light has nothing in common with darkness, and truth has nothing in common with lawlessness.
33: Literature of the 16th century. In 1547-1549. There is a church-wide canonization of many Russian saints who were previously considered locally revered. This action required documentary and spiritual justification. For this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius carries out his plan - to collect all books of religious content approved in Russia - and creates the “Great Chetya Menaion”. For this purpose, about 60 lives of new canonized saints, written in a rhetorical style, were compiled. The most important event in the spiritual life of the mid-16th century. The creation of the “Stoglavy Cathedral” also appeared. This council was distinguished by its stern and doctrinal didacticism. It wrote about what icon painting should be like (focused on Rublev), church books (necessarily corrected). Domostroy served the purpose of regulating family life. The author has not been precisely identified, but it is believed that the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester, had a hand in this book. The ideological orientation of the literature of the Muscovite kingdom predetermined the rapid development of journalism. In journalism, works devoted to hot topics public life. Areas of journalistic problems: problems associated with the formation of an autocratic state (the appearance of the autocrat, the relationship of different classes, the problem of the relationship between royal and church power), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of intra-church land ownership, problems of moral character). One of the most famous publicists was Maxim Grek. He owns a huge literary heritage. In one of his works, “The Word of Maximus the Greek,” the main literary device is allegory. This is also an allegory in genre. At the center of the narrative is the image of the Wife, this is power, Vasily (from the Greek, “kingdom”). In the allegorical image of a lonely, inconsolably crying widow, Maxim the Greek depicts the Russian state. Through the mouth of Vasily, Maxim the Greek mercilessly denounces the powers that be and immediately explains the meaning of his allegory. The desert and wild animals signify the last damned age, when there are no more pious rulers, and the current rulers only care about increasing their limits and for the sake of this they rush to bloodshed. Maxim Grek's innovation in the field of journalism is very great: he introduced allegory into journalism and renounced traditional self-deprecation. And his thoughts and advice were very relevant and useful. All works of Maxim the Greek are written in strict accordance with the rules of rhetorical and grammatical art. He develops his thoughts in a clear logical sequence, giving reasons for each position. The language of his works is bookish, he does not allow any verbal “liberties” in the use of vernacular, colloquial vocabulary. The literary style of Maxim the Greek had a great influence on his students and followers: Andrei Kurbsky, Zinovy Otensky.
34. Ivan Peresvetov and the traditions of ancient writing.
Ivan Peresvetov. The Western Russian “warrior” of the 16th century broke most sharply with the traditions of ancient writing. Ivan Peresvetov. This is a completely secular writer. Having arrived in Rus' in the late 30s of the 16th century (from Poland, Hungary and Moldova), when Ivan IV was still a child and the boyars ruled for him, Peresvetov became a decisive opponent of the arbitrariness of the “nobles”. All his works are devoted to denouncing the “lazy rich” and glorifying the poor but brave “warriors”. Peresvetov’s works included works of various genres - petition letters to the Tsar, predictions of “Latin philosophers and doctors” about the glorious future of Ivan IV and stories about the Greek and Turkish kings. Peresvetov’s works, written in the form of messages - the “Small” and “Big” petitions - differed sharply in character. The “Small Petition” was structured like genuine “petitions” (petitions, statements) of that time. This was Peresvetov’s petition to the Tsar for permission to resume the shield workshop that Peresvetov was supposed to set up back in the 30s, but was unable to due to troubles during the period of “boyar rule.” The “Big Petition” was a petition only in form. Essentially, this is a journalistic work in which Peresvetov proposed that Ivan IV introduce the most important political reforms (the creation of a regular army of “juniors”, the abolition of the administration of governors, the abolition of bondage, the conquest of Kazan). Ideas similar to the “Big Petition” were expressed in two of Peresvetov’s stories: “The Tale of Magmets” and “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”; Along with them, Nestor-Iskander’s “The Tale of Constantinople” was included in Peresvetov’s collection of works, slightly altered by Peresvetov and used by him as an introduction to his collected works. Peresvetov's ideology is quite complex. A “warrior” (professional military man), Peresvetov in many respects can be considered a representative of the nobility (the lower part of the feudal class) - he hates rich nobles, dreams of “formidable” royal power. But in Peresvetov’s writings there are also bold ideas that hardly occurred to the majority of nobles of the 16th century. He condemns the “enslavement” and enslavement of people; claims that all enslavement comes from the devil; believes that “truth” (justice) is higher than “faith”, and points out that there is still no “truth” in the Muscovite kingdom, “and if there is no truth, then there is no everything.” In many features, Peresvetov’s works are reminiscent of “The Tale of Dracula” of the 15th century. Like the author of “The Tale of Dracula,” Peresvetov believed in the great virtues of “formidable” power and its ability to eradicate “evil”: “And it is impossible (impossible) for a king to exist without a threat; like a horse under a king without a bridle, so is a kingdom without a storm.” Like the author of “The Tale of Dracula,” Peresvetov did not consider the “right faith” a prerequisite for “truth” in the state (in the kingdom of Constantine, despite the “Christian faith,” there was no “truth,” which the “infidel” Magmet managed to introduce). But “The Tale of Dracula” was a work of fiction, the author of which gave readers the opportunity to draw their own conclusions from the story, and these conclusions could be different. Peresvetov was primarily a publicist; he did not doubt the usefulness of “formidable power” and directly expressed this idea. Peresvetov's writings clearly reveal the influence of folklore and oral speech. Peresvetov’s aphorisms were structured like sayings: “Like a horse under a king without a bridle, so is a kingdom without a thunderstorm,” “God does not love faith, truth,” “Keep a warrior like a falcon, and always make his heart glad...” A kind of gloomy humor is also found in Peresvetov’s writings (also reminiscent of “The Tale of Dracula”). When the wise king Magmet found out that the judges were judging him “by promise” (for bribes), he did not especially condemn them, “only he ordered them to be robbed alive.” And he said this: “If they grow a body again, otherwise the guilt will be surrendered to them (forgiven).” And he ordered them to be made into effigies from their skins and wrote on them: “Without such a thunderstorm it is impossible to bring them into the kingdom of truth.”
The historical fate of Peresvetov’s calls turned out to be quite peculiar. The program of this publicist, who valued “truth” above “faith” and condemned all “enslavement,” was not accepted by the autocratic authorities. Peresvetov himself quickly and without a trace disappeared from the historical scene. Judging by the mention of some kind of “Peresvetov’s black list” in the tsar’s archive (as judicial investigation cases were often called), Peresvetov may have been subjected to murder in the 16th century. repression. But the idea of the royal “thunderstorm” expressed by him was realized in the 16th century, although, probably, not at all in the way their author intended. This idea was picked up by the same Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, to whom Peresvetov turned and who received the nickname Grozny in history.
35 . Consolidated monuments. Ivan Fedorov.
The publication of the first Russian dated book is associated with the names of the first printer Ivan Fedorov, the deacon of the Church of Nikola Gostunsky in the Kremlin, and his assistant Peter Timofeev Mstislavets. In April 1563, at the behest of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and with the blessing of Metropolitan Macarius, they began work on the book Apostle, which was completed in March 1564. In Moscow, Ivan Fedorov published only two liturgical books: the Apostle and the Book of Hours (in two editions). Because of the “envy of many” of the conservative clergy, he was forced to leave Rus'. Finding himself in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the pioneer printer founded a printing house in the city of Zabludov, on the estate of Hetman Grigory Khodkevich. As a result of Khodkevich's decision to stop publishing, Fedorov moved to Lvov at the beginning of 1573, where he founded a new printing house - the first in Ukraine. Here in 1574 he published the Primer - the first printed East Slavic textbook. In 1575, the printer was invited to serve by Prince Konstantin (Vasily) Ostrozhsky. On his estate, Fedorov opened his last printing house, where in 1580 he published the famous Ostrog Bible - the first printed Bible in Church Slavonic. Returning to Lviv at the end of 1583, the printer fell ill and died. A characteristic feature of the development of Russian literature in the 16th century. was the creation of numerous generalizing principles of both church and secular literature, ideologically consolidating the unification of Russian lands around political and religious. and cult. center of Moscow. Metropolitan Macarius was installed as Archbishop of Veliky Novgorod. A lot of people were involved in working on the book “Great Cheti-Minea”, including clerk Dmitry Gerasimov. The creation of the 1st edition took 12 years (1529-1541). On behalf of Macarius, new editions of the lives of Alex Nevsky, Savva Storozhevsky, and Metropolitan Jonah were created. The Russian chronograph of 1512 set itself the task of determining the place of Rus' and its capital Moscow in world history. By incorporating local chronicles of former appanage principalities, processing them in the light of the ideas of Moscow absolutism, all-Russian chronicle collections are created. The Resurrection Chronicle is the history of the formation of the Kyiv state. The compilers were unable to eliminate regional tendencies and give stylistic unity to the material. In 1526-1530, the Nikon Chronicle was created. The events of Russian history are correlated with Byzantine history, borrowed from the chronograph. The idea of succession of autocratic power from the princes of Kyiv to the princes of Moscow was carried out. DEGREE BOOK. 1563. “The sedate book of the royal genealogy.”, confessor Andrei-Athanasius. The history of the state is presented in the form of hagiographies of its rulers according to degrees of kinship. The appearance of each prince is a “border” in history. The book is divided into 17 degrees and facets. introduction - the life of Princess Olga. DOMOSTROY. Sylvester. It clearly defines a person’s behavior in relation to the church and the king, the thought of resigned obedience to the royal authority. A woman’s behavior at a party and at home is strictly regulated, and what she can talk about. Domostroy-1st encyclopedia of household management.
36. “Walking across Three Seas” by A. Nikitin.
An outstanding work of the late 15th century. is “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, placed under 1475 in the Sofia Chronicle. Nikitin made his “walk” to India from 1466 to 1472... “Walking” is a precious historical document, the living word of a man of the 15th century, a wonderful monument of literature. For his work, Afanasy chooses the genre of travel notes and essays. Unlike the “travel-walking” of the 12th-13th centuries, his “walking” is devoid of religious and didactic purposes. Nikitin goes to India, unknown to the Russian people, in order to see it with his own eyes, in order to “look at the goods on the Russian land.”
– transformation of the “walking” genre. 1) the hero is a merchant, the goal is trade. 2) not to holy places, but to India - an unclean country. – description of India. 1) very detailed, attempts to concisely and succinctly describe the features of the country. The beginning... 2) a reflection of the legends about the bird Gukuk, the monkey king. 3) exaggeration in the description of wealth. – the personality of the author. 1) a secular, enterprising person, energetic. Practical intentions, curiosity. 2) is distinguished by religious tolerance, even in prayers there are Mohammedan inserts. But he does not give up Orthodoxy, he grieves that he cannot maintain the rituals. There were words that he recognizes the correctness of faith if it is in one God.
- style. 1) intertwining reality and fantasy. 2) there is no harmonious composition, repetition. 3) simple language, few church words, but there are Persian, Arabic, Turkic words. Traveler personality. Afanasy Nikitin is drawn to his homeland, he loves the Russian land: “May God save the Russian land.” Nikitin glorifies the Russian land in all languages. Afanasy Nikitin is also distinguished by religious tolerance, which is unusual for the Middle Ages. Afanasy Nikitin was a brave, persistent, observant, enterprising Russian traveler who knew how to appreciate other people's customs without betraying his own.
37. The Tale of Dracula. The story is original, not translated. The story was based on legends about the Mutyana Wallachian Romanian prince (lived in the mid-15th century). Vlad Tepes (Dracula), cat. famous for his cruelty. These tales were written down in Hungary and Germany, and the Russian story about Dracula was written in the 80s. 15th century presumably a member of the Russian embassy Fyodor Kuritsyn and presents an original treatment of the “vagrant plot”. This story consists of separate episodes, cat. connected main theme: evil wisdom (the cruelty of the Mytyanovsky governor, i.e. a combination of cruelty and wit. Dracula does not just execute people, he tests them (the motif of testing is central in medieval literature). And the slow-witted, who simply take everything at face value, those who do not see the second meaning pay for their inelegance. Idea. What is the meaning of the work? The fact that the plot of the story is not connected with teaching, therefore the main meaning, the highlight is in the complex combination of wisdom, justice, cruelty; intelligence and cunning - in the image of Dracula. The reader must decide for himself how to relate to the characters; the author does not give his assessment, because... This work is not journalistic, but fictional. In the 16th century this story is not rewritten; it appears again in the 17th century, but the image of Dracula is deprived of its duality (either a villain or a wise ruler).
38. Ivan the Terrible as a writer. The style of his messages. Ivan groznyj- Tsar (since 1547) of All Rus', writer and publicist. Contemporaries and authors of the early 17th century. they also mentioned the correspondence of I. IV with Prince Kurbsky, who fled from him (the messages of Kurbsky and the tsar were mentioned in diplomatic correspondence of the 16th century), and in theological disputes with the Protestant pastor Jan Rokita and the Jesuit Possevino. Many of the messages of I. IV, his journalistic introduction to the actions of the Stoglavy Council and his response to Jan Rokite reached the manuscripts of the 16th century, others were preserved only in the handwritten tradition of the 17th-18th centuries. A complex problem is the attribution of I. IV to those works that were of an official nature: many letters and messages signed by I. IV were undoubtedly prepared by his office. However, a number of diplomatic messages, as well as his journalistic messages and introductions to “Stoglav” and “Dukhovna”, reveal such individual stylistic features that give reason to consider them the works of the same author. These features have been found in the messages of I. IV for several decades; During this period, not a single literary educated statesman of this period survived, and this gives reason to see in these diplomatic documents and journalistic writings works composed (most likely dictated) by I. IV himself. The works of I. IV belong mainly to the journalistic genre. Among them, his correspondence with Kurbsky occupies a special place. A. M. Kurbsky, a major military leader, having reason to expect disgrace and execution, fled to Lithuania in 1564, from where he sent a “reproachful” message to I. IV. The answer to this was the Tsar’s extensive first message, designated as the Tsar’s message to the “Russian ... state.” It was thus included in a number of known ones already from the beginning of the 16th century. “open letters” (for example, “Answer of the Kirillov elders” Joseph Volotsky ), designed not so much for the immediate addressee, but for a wider audience. In the message, I. IV outlined his state program, defended his right as an autocrat to unlimited power, condemned the “boyars,” by which he meant all the forces opposing him, thus giving the term “boyars” a broader meaning than was customary in the 16th century . He vehemently rejected I. IV and Kurbsky’s reproaches, and he took the reproach of “resistance to Orthodoxy” especially painfully. In its form, the message of I. IV is very unconventional; in it one can even notice buffoonish features that are disharmonious with high pathos within the same work. Apparently, I. IV felt the need for effective and convincing argumentation; addressing the residents of the “Russian state,” he could not limit himself only to high-flown rhetoric, quotations from the Bible and patristic literature; in order to show the wrongness of the “oathbreakers” he denounced, specific and expressive details were needed. The Tsar found them by painting a picture of his “orphan childhood” during the period of “boyar rule” and the boyars’ willfulness in these and subsequent years. This picture was acutely tendentious and hardly historically accurate, but its expressiveness and artistic power cannot be denied. Among other polemical works of I. IV, his message to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery deserves attention. It was caused by a phenomenon characteristic of that time when large landowners, trying to protect their lives, became monks and gave their lands to monasteries, which sometimes led to their transformation into disguised boyar estates. Written in 1573 on a specific occasion (in connection with the conflict between the influential monk, boyar Sheremetev, and Sobakin, who was sent to the monastery “from the royal power”), the tsar’s message was directed against such a dangerous trend for the autocracy. In the message, full of ominous irony, I. IV combines formulas of extreme self-deprecation (“And to me, a stinking dog: who should I teach and what should I punish and how should I enlighten?”) with undisguised threats and harsh denunciations. An important place in the work of I. IV is occupied by a set of interconnected messages written after the successful Livonian campaign of 1577 (messages to Polubensky, Khodkevich, etc.), as well as messages of 1567 sent abroad on behalf of the boyars, but revealing obvious signs literary style of the tsar (these were responses to intercepted letters calling on the boyars to treason). The combination of a “mocking”, almost buffoonish style with high rhetoric, and sometimes with consideration of philosophical problems, is a characteristic feature of all these monuments. The spirit of the buffoon “game,” apparently popular in the oprichnina, was also reflected in the tsar’s messages to the former oprichnina Vasily Gryazny, who was captured in the Crimea and asked the tsar to ransom him; I. IV agreed to give only an insignificant ransom for him, compared with the one requested by the Crimeans. The total volume of I. IV's literary output has not yet been established. An important task remains to identify monuments of his individual creativity from the large mass of official messages of the tsar. But the works known to us are enough to evaluate I. IV as an outstanding writer-publicist.
39: “The Tale of the Capture of Kazan” - apology, power, greatness of the Muscovite kingdom and Ivan the Terrible. – the author is a Russian who was captured by the Kazan people. Stayed there for 20 years. – the style is borrowed from the story about the capture of Constantinople, about the massacre of Mamay, about Dinara, Chronograph, CNT, legends and traditions of the Tatars. – Lamentations of the Kazan Queen Anastasia. Imaginative artistry adorns speech. – Expression in the depiction of past violence of the Kazan people over Russia – “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople” // in the description of the attacks on Kazan. The motive of the title “The Mortal Cup” is about the destruction of Ryazan by Batu. – a colorful image of the military fervor of the Russians. – the apotheosis is picturesquely depicted. Upon G.'s return to Moscow. – despite the general identity of the style of the “stories”, there is no weaving of words in it. – the conquest of Kazan, the settling of final scores with the Tatars, the triumph of Moscow politics. “Kazan History” - compilation. It includes fragments of chronicles, chronographs, stories, and Scripture159. This huge work, containing many multidirectional, but authoritative texts in the Moscow kingdom, turns out to be a concentration of complex ideas and ambiguous images, achieving polysemy, objectivity, accessible to medieval compilations, but inaccessible to the individual will of one author. The text is subject to the elemental forces that dominate literature, and therefore the ideology of its time. The feature of “Kazan History” that has attracted the most attention in the research literature is inconsistency, a strange mix of assessments. In some parts, the narrator reveals warm sympathy for the Kazan people, which, however, is easily combined with condemnation of them. These “mixed feelings” are distributed unevenly throughout the text. They are concentrated mainly in the history of the founding of the Kazan kingdom and its establishment under the kings Sain and Ulu-Akhmet, in the story of Queen Sumbek, her reign and removal from Kazan, and in the central large part - in the description of the last siege and the capture of Kazan by the troops of Grozny. The contradictions of the “Kazan History” also attracted attention in connection with general problems in the history of ancient Russian literature. In studies of the poetics of ancient Russian literature, “Kazan History” is used to demonstrate the process of disintegration of medieval literary etiquette. The ambiguity of the characteristics of the Kazan enemies is understood as a rejection of primitive moralization, a harbinger of a new time, a late stage of evolution.
45. Schism in the Russian Church and its essence . In the 17th century the church remained the only institution of the feudal state that violated the principle of centralization. This was facilitated by the establishment of the patriarchate in 1589. The Patriarch subjugated all church organizations and exercised great influence on the Tsar. The state sought to subjugate the church, and the first step towards this was the creation in 1649 of the Monastic Order, which removed legal proceedings over people living on church property from the jurisdiction of the church. The gradual loss of the church's former authority in public and personal life and the decline in morality among clergy caused alarm among the ruling elite. In this regard, in the 40s of the 17th century. The question arose about carrying out church reform. Under the Tsar's confessor Stefan Vonifatiev, a circle of “zealots of ancient piety” was created, which included representatives of the Moscow clergy (Nikon-Archimandrite Novospassky, Ivan Neronov, archpriest of the Kazan Cathedral), provincial archpriests (Abakkuk, Daniil Loggin), etc. The circle aimed to raise religious and moral level of the clergy, to give decorum and decorum to the disorderly and vain church service. At this time, the “researchers” of the printing house came to the idea of the need to correct liturgical books according to the Greek originals, and this work was started in 1650 by scholar-monks who arrived from Kiev. Part of the circle of “zealots” considered it necessary to correct the books not according to Greek models, but according to old Russian manuscripts and decrees of the Stoglavy Council. In 1652, Patriarch Joseph died, and the active, energetic and power-hungry Metropolitan Nikon of Novgorod was elected to the patriarchal throne. Having become a patriarch, he carried out a church reform, sending out a “memory” to the churches on March 14, 1653, where, in accordance with the rituals of the Greek Church, he ordered to replace prostrations with waist bows, and the two-fingered sign of the cross with three-fingered ones. Thus, the reform was reduced to the external ritual side, although its goal was to strengthen the church feudal organization. Essentially, the reform marked a new stage in the subordination of the church to secular power, therefore it was actively supported by the government of Alexei Mikhailovich: it was finally consolidated by the resolutions of the councils of 1654 and 1655. The reform gave rise to the emergence of a powerful anti-feudal, anti-government movement - the schism, or Old Believers. Habakkuk Petrovich (1621-1682) - head of the Old Believers, ideologist of the split in Russian Orthodox Church, archpriest, writer. Archpriest Avvakum was among the most ardent opponents of church reform , and soon becomes the leader of the movement for the preservation of the old faith. Possessing rare energy and fanatical enthusiasm and being a stubborn adherent of antiquity, Avvakum did not stop fighting until the end of his life, despite energetic persecution initially from Nikon. Already in September 1653, Avvakum was thrown into the basement of the Andronievsky Monastery and exiled with his family to Tobolsk. From 1656 to 1661, Avvakum and his family, by order of Nikon, were included in the detachment of the Siberian explorer Afanasy Pashkov. The inflexible archpriest continued his active preaching work and constantly came into conflict with church and secular authorities, and for exposing the actions of the governor he was repeatedly subjected to severe deprivations and punishments - up to imprisonment in a cold tower and whipping. In the early 60s of the 15th century. The attitude of the authorities towards the exiled Old Believers changed briefly: having sent Nikon into disgrace, the sovereign decided to return some of them to Moscow. But the disgraced archpriest did not resign himself; he continued to fight for “ancient piety.” As a result of a petition submitted to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, in which the entire Russian Church was accused of heresy, he was exiled to Mezen (modern Arkhangelsk region), where he stayed for about a year and a half. Dissenters consider him a martyr. In the area of schism, Habakkuk acted not only as an example of inflexible conviction; he is one of the most outstanding teachers of schism. Avvakum’s doctrinal views boil down to the denial of Nikon’s “innovations,” which he connected with “Roman fornication,” that is, with Catholicism.
40 . "The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks." It arose among the Cossacks, it depicts the selfless feat of a handful of brave men who not only captured the Turkish fortress of Azov in 1637, but also managed to defend it from significantly superior enemy forces in 1641. Glorifying the selfless feat of the Cossacks - faithful Russian sons, the author At the same time, the story pays tribute to tradition: the victory is explained as a result of the miraculous intercession of heavenly forces led by John the Baptist. However, religious fiction serves here only as a means of exalting the patriotic feat of the defenders of Azov. In the traditional description of the battle, taken by the author of the story from the arsenal artistic means"Tales of the Massacre of Mamayev." “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”, Cossack folklore is widely introduced. The language of the story lacks bookish rhetoric; elements of lively colloquial speech are widely represented. The author sought to create an image of the “mass”, to convey their feelings, thoughts and moods, to glorify the people’s power, which triumphed over the “strength and puffs” of the “Tsar of Tours”. In the second half of the 17th century. Historical story begins to gradually lose its historicism, acquiring the character of a love adventure story, which, in turn, serves as the basis for the further development of an adventure love story. The main attention is shifted to the private, personal life of a person. The writer and reader become more interested in moral, ethical, and everyday issues.
41 . Domostroy. Problems, structure of the monument, journalistic orientation.
This monument belongs to Ser. 16th century The author-compiler was one of the advisers to Ivan the Terrible - Sylvester. This is not a cast monument, but a cultural one. It gives recommendations on how to arrange your home so that entering it is “like entering heaven.” This monument has 3 editions: 1) Novgorod edition of the 15th century; 2) Recycled in Moscow Sylvester and having. appeal to my son. 3) Contamination of the first two. Influenced by: 1) Western European “Domostroy”, French, Polish, Italian.; 2) Works of the ancient Greek writer Xenophond “On the household”; 3) Aristotle’s teaching “Politics”. “Domostroy regulates and narrates: 1) spiritual life. The ritual “how to believe”, “how to honor the king”. paragraph: 1-15. 2) About worldly life “how to live with wives, children, household members, servants.” 3) About house building. How to make, how to roll, cook. Ch. 30-65. In "Domostroy" created. pictures of an ideal life. Ideal phenomenon cleanliness, order, frugality, hospitality, mutual respect, family integrity, ability to manage a household. In general, this is the ideal of working life. These rules are addressed to the propertied class (boyars, merchants) because The life of different classes did not differ in essence, but only in quantity. The author felt that this monument lacked a spiritual principle, it was too attached to the earth, to the material, everyday, and this was the basis for the 19th century. (Ostrovsky, Turgenev) considered retrograde, limited. And Sylvester adds 64 chapters. with an appeal to his son, in the cat. he writes about the soul.
42. 17th century in Russian literature as a transition from the ancient Russian type of literature to the literature of modern times.
Late XVI and beginning of XVII V. in the history of Rus' were marked by turbulent historical events (“The Troubles”, the difficult situation of the peasantry, the economic crisis).
From the second half of the 17th century. In Russian literature, secular genres appear and spread - historical and everyday stories, satire, theater emerges, and Russian drama is born. The reader's everyday life includes Western narrative literature, a chivalric romance with a love theme, a funny short story, and a comic story (anecdote).
Folk poetry is gaining wide access. The first recordings of works of oral poetry appear. Songs are created that express the oppositional attitude of the peasant masses to the ruling classes. In the field of historical literature in the first years of the 17th century. We are seeing a very significant shift. The Chronograph of 1512 is replaced by a new, second edition of the Chronograph, dating back to 1617. The third edition of the “Chronograph” is 1620. The new “Chronograph” is replenished with information from Western European history. One of the most popular literary genres of Moscow Rus' in the 15th-16th centuries. – hagiographic. In the style of traditional “good words” and abstract panegyric, lives were written throughout the 17th century. The further time went into the 17th century, the more often the life was filled with concrete, real biographical material - the rejection of stereotyped norms, the manifestation of attention to the individual characteristics of life. In some Russian Lives we observe the characteristic features of the narrative genre and family chronicle (the Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya) or their transformation into an autobiography, presented in a lively colloquial language and containing real details in describing the fate of the hero of the Life and the life surrounding him (the Life of Archpriest Avvakum). Russian literary language of the 17th century. characterized by a complex and contradictory process of its development, conditioned by the interaction and struggle of social forces that took an active part in language construction at that time. Conservative church circles and part of the boyar nobility continued to cultivate a solemn style decorated with florid “good speech”, based on archaic Church Slavonic norms. Western European, Latin and Polish vocabulary penetrated into the Russian language, partially enriching the vocabulary of the Russian language. The Russian literary language is moving towards a decisive rapprochement with the living folk language, with the vernacular and business command language. We observe a peculiar combination of the old Church Slavonic tradition with living vernacular in the works of Old Believer literature, especially in the works of Archpriest Avvakum. These works were addressed to the widest and most culturally diverse audience of adherents of the “old faith” and the old rite.
46. Style of “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”. Symbolism, humor. Admiration for the life of Rev. Habakkuk as a work of art began a long time ago. Linguists unanimously spoke about its exceptional significance for the history of the Russian language; literary historians - about the brightness of his style. Meanwhile, the life of Rev. Habakkuk has not yet found its researcher. The main tone in which the story of his life is told by Archpriest. Avvakum, is the deeply personal tone of a simple-minded, trusting narrator, in whom a swarm of memories rushes in a rapid stream of verbal associations, and creates lyrical digressions and a chaotic, excited cohesion of compositional parts. The main stylistic layer is the skaz layer. From this point of view, a “life” is an intimate, friendly “conversation” about remarkable incidents from the life of the narrator, which follow one after another in the order of the wanderings of the persecuted archpriest or emerge in a group - due to close association by similarity (episodes about persecution from “chiefs, ““Tale” about the exorcism of demons). But this tale is replaced by a solemn sermon. Crowds of “true believers” and “Nikonians” appear behind the direct interlocutors to whom Habakkuk addressed. Therefore, lyrical appeals to the latter are interspersed in the life. In the picture of the trial of Rev. Habakkuk clearly appears in the stylistic details of the gospel story about the trial of Christ. Thus, throughout the entire tale, there is a kind of interweaving of two emotional-symbolic series, two forms of style. In the symbolism of the life of Habakkuk, first of all, elements of the church and books appear. And their external structure and the prevailing principles of their associations, when analyzed, sharply separate them from the vulgar colloquial-speech element in which they are immersed in their lives. There is no “twisting of words” in the “stories” of Avvakum. Therefore, complex words and combinations with solemn epithets are very poorly represented in the life, as opposed to the tendency of other writers of the same era to them. For the church-book symbolism of Habakkuk, it is essential that it is almost entirely composed of the most common church-biblical phrases, that is, groups of words almost fused, closely connected by the usual threads of psychic association by contiguity. This determines the nature of the emotions and ideas associated with it: memorized solemn-book combinations are not divided, but, like a ready-made label, symbolize a series of complex ideas. Because of this, the ecclesiastical-archaic layer of style does not detail the reproduced ideas, but only assigns them to a certain type, enveloping them in a halo of sublime emotions; does not paint pictures and actions, but only names them solemnly.
47.Satirical literature of the 17th century. One of the most remarkable phenomena in literature of the second half of the 17th century. is the design and development of satire as an independent literary genre, which is due to the specifics of life at that time. The formation of a “single all-Russian market” in the second half of the 17th century. led to the strengthening of the role of the trade and craft population of cities in the economic and cultural life of the country. However, politically this part of the population remained powerless and was subjected to shameless exploitation and oppression. The posad responded to increased oppression with numerous urban uprisings, which contributed to the growth of class consciousness. The emergence of democratic satire was a consequence of the active participation of the townspeople in the class struggle. Thus, the Russian reality of the “rebellious” 17th century was the soil on which satire arose. The social acuteness and anti-feudal orientation of literary satire brought it closer to folk oral and poetic satire, which served as the inexhaustible source from which it drew its artistic and visual means. Essential aspects of the life of feudal society were subjected to satirical exposure: the unfair and corrupt court; social inequality; the immoral life of monasticism and the clergy, their hypocrisy, hypocrisy and greed; “state system” of getting the people drunk through the “tsar’s tavern”. The stories about the Shemyakin court and about Ersha Ershovich are dedicated to exposing the legal system based on the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649.
48. Literature of the 17th century. Poetry. Simeon of Polotsk . A number of different literary monuments of that time are dedicated to the turbulent historical events of the early 17th century, which contemporaries called the “Time of Troubles.” One group reflects the interests of the ruling boyar circles. The other group is closely connected with the sentiments and aspirations of the democratic, townspeople strata of the population. The growth of class consciousness of the masses was clearly reflected in the democratic direction of Russian literature, which in the second half of 17 began to take shape as a satirical direction associated with the class struggle of the Posad against social injustice. One of the remarkable phenomena of literary development of the 17th century. there was the appearance of poetry - verses, poems. The emergence of book poetry dates back to the first third of the 17th century and is associated with the strengthening of the role of cities in the cultural life of the country and the desire of the advanced strata of Russian society to master the achievements of European culture. SIMEON OF POLOTSK (1629-1680), Belarusian. and Russian spiritual writer, publicist, poet. Genus. in Polotsk. He studied at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and the Polish College of the Society of Jesus. In 1656 he took monastic vows at the Polotsk Epiphany Monastery and became a teacher at the Orthodox school. brotherhood." After the occupation of Polotsk by the Poles, he moved to Moscow, where his writing and poetic talent attracted the attention of the court. Having become one of the close associates of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, he participated in the fight against the Old Believers, and compiled manuals for the princes according to the Law of God. However, the Moscow clergy was suspicious of S., fearing that a Catholic was infiltrating him. influence. His accusatory polemical treatises, directed against the decline of the morals of the clergy and the remnants of paganism among the people, caused considerable indignation. S. became one of the founders of Russian. "biblical theater" He wrote several. plays in verse and prose: “The Comedy of the Prodigal Son”, “The Comedy of King Nebuchadnezzar and the Three Youths”, “The Comedy of Nebuchadnezzar and Holofernes”. These plays, full of crude humor and genre scenes, had an edifying orientation. They were placed at court in the presence of the king. Simeon was also one of the main authors of the academy project (for teaching “civil and spiritual sciences”), developed under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. He died in Moscow on August 25 (September 4), 1680, and was buried in the Zaikonospassky Monastery, on the site of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy that was later built here.
49. “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”, character. generalizations in the story, conflict, CNT traditions.
This story is outside of traditional genre systems. At the intersection of folklore (folk songs about grief) and book tradition (books of resting poems). The main character is some good guy. The absence of a name suggests that the fate of man is described in general about the eternal struggle between good and evil in the heart of man. Before us is a man of a certain time (“rebellious time” - 17th century, rebellious century, rational age). This is the time when a person tried to learn something new, unknown, i.e. restless person. This story, like the work of DRL, is projected onto world history. The author addresses the fundamental plot of Adam and Eve. There are plot parallels: 1)biblical: a) Adam ate the grapes; b) Adam did not listen to God; c) Tempted by the serpent; d) Shame did not allow Adam to approach God. 2) narrative: a) The good fellow tasted the wine; b) Tempted by a friend; c) Shame did not allow the good young man to visit his parents; d) The fellow boasted, and from that time on, grief became attached to him. That. the idea of individual destiny, independent choice, the desire to live not according to the proverbs and sayings of parents, i.e. installed laws, leads to the fact that a person becomes bifurcated. Grief is the twin of a young man and he cannot escape the power of grief, because... he himself chose the “evil fate”. Before us is a hero - an outcast, an outcast, a “walking man”, his home becomes a tavern, and his joy is drunkenness. However, the young man suffers from his own fall and the author does not denounce, but sympathizes with the hero. Grief is untied when he comes to the monastery, when he finds himself in an ordered space, he returns - a parallel to the “prodigal son”.
50: “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn” .
The author uses real events from the life of the merchant family Grudtsin-Usov. It is no coincidence that the merchant's son becomes the hero of this story, because... it is the merchants who are the most mobile layer (they travel, communicate with foreigners, their lives are not closed) During this period, literature turns into a free plot narrative, i.e. Literature is built on an entertaining plot, and not on etiquette. Therefore, the author allows switching from one genre to another. Includes: - a religious legend, the main plot links of which are sin, illness, repentance, salvation. This is a legend about the sale of the soul for worldly goods and pleasures, i.e. again we are faced with a demonic theme, the main character Savva is accompanied by his “brother” demon. This is the second “I” of the hero, his dark vicious beginning, which manifests itself as frivolity, weak will, lust, vanity. That. Before us is again a divided man. - a story about merchant sons, connected with the theme of travel - a fairy tale, connected with the royal attention, the king's mercy and the fact that Savva should become the royal son-in-law. Switching from one genre to another creates tension because... deceives the reader's expectations. The author wants to convince us that the hero is not fiction, i.e. creates the illusion of life-likeness, so dates, names, etc. are present. He is shaking the foundations, because... strives to impart authority and weight to his work. The main idea of the author: to show the diversity of life, its variability. And the main character sells his soul not only for love, but also in order to go around, see the world, see its many faces. This story testifies that the foundations of ancient Russian life are being shaken and broken.
51: “The Tale of Frol Skobeev” .
This is a picaresque story, the main character is a clever swindler, a rogue, a deceiver, an impoverished nobleman who deceives him into marrying Annushka, the daughter of a rich steel worker. Frol decides “I’ll be a colonel or a dead man.” The composition is interesting because the story is divided into 2 parts. The milestone is marriage. The first part develops rapidly, because... adventures, fun and often obscene games are described. In this game, Frol changes clothes 2 times, he is “mummered”, i.e. hides his face and puts on a mask. The second part is not based on an entertaining plot: it has a lot of descriptions and dialogues. If actions are important in the 1st part, then experiences are important in the 2nd part. For the first time, the author separates the hero’s speech from his own statements. The author manages to show the different psychological states of the hero (the father experiences anger, love and care). This is a conscious author's technique! The author shows that he can solve various problems: build a dynamic plot and depict the psychology of the hero. The author does not sympathize with the hero in any way, does not admire Frol’s successes. From the point of view of the author, Frol Skobeev is a fraud by conviction, he is cunning, not smart and brave. That. the main character does not seek to save the soul, but seeks to acquire earthly happiness.
52. Evolution of the story. 1) The main character changes; instead of a king, a prince, a saint - representatives of the middle strata of the population, impoverished nobles. 2) The author’s position changes: - instead of real persons there are fictional characters; - the characters are not interpreted unambiguously, this is a motley man; 3) The role of folklore genres is decreasing, and adventurous and everyday stories are being formed. The old forms were no longer suitable, because... life, consciousness changed (turmoil, church split)
– democratization, historical facts are gradually being replaced by fiction. Entertainment, motives and images play a big role.
– “The Tale of the Azov Sitting of the Don Cossacks” arose among the Cossacks and captured the exploits of a handful of brave men who not only captured the Turkish fortress of Azov, but also managed to defend it from significantly superior enemy forces 1) the form of the Cossack military letter gave the genre of business writing a bright poetic sound . A truthful and accurate description of events, a wide creative use of Cossack folklore. 2) heroes are not outstanding historical figures, but a small group of brave men, Cossacks. A feat for the sake of the Moscow state. They are former slaves, they are not revered in Rus', but they love their homeland 3) a letter from the Cossacks to the Sultan 4) glorification of the Cossacks => hyperbolization (5000 versus 300,000) 5) a poetic farewell to the Quiet Don and the sovereign. 6) tradition of victory due to the intercession of heavenly forces led by John the Baptist 7) there is no bookish rhetoric, there are elements of living colloquial speech 8) assertion of popular power.
- the last quarter of the 17th century, under the influence of Cossack songs about S. Razin, the story turns into a fairy-tale story about the capture of Azov and the siege from the Turkish king Brahim. 3 parts: 1) capture of the daughter of the Azov pasha 2) capture of Azov by cunning 3) description of the siege of the fortress. They dressed up as merchants and hid the soldiers in carts. Isolation of individual characters, women acting. Great fun, everyday details.
53: The emergence of Russian theater . The history of Russian theater is divided into several main stages. The initial, playful stage originates in clan society and ends by the 17th century, when, along with a new period of Russian history, a new, more mature stage in the development of the theater begins, culminating in the establishment of a permanent state professional theater in 1756. Russian theater originated in ancient times. Its origins go back to folk art - rituals, holidays associated with work. Over time, the rituals lost their magical meaning and turned into performance games. Elements of theater were born in them - dramatic action, mummering, dialogue. Subsequently, the simplest games turned into folk dramas; they were created in the process of collective creativity and were stored in people's memory, passing from generation to generation. Start dramatic performances in Rus' dates back to the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1671). Although the idea of dramatic spectacles in Russia came true somewhat earlier - around the middle of the 17th century, when students of the Kiev Theological Academy acted out prologues in the squares, went from house to house with nativity scenes at Christmas time and amused the people with comic stories. But the first actual dramatic performance was the Russian “comedy”: “Baba Yaga, bone leg", staged in 1671 during the festivities on the occasion of Alexei Mikhailovich's remarriage. The Tsar liked this performance so much that he ordered Matveev to set up a fun house in Preobrazhenskoe and to import actors from abroad. In June 1671, the German troupe of Yagan came to Moscow, which began its performances with the play “How Queen Judith cut off the head of King Holofernes.” The plays subsequently staged were mostly spiritual in content. The main dramatic writers of this period were Archimandrites Dmitry Savin and Simeon of Polotsk, who initially determined the spiritual and moral direction of our theater. Peter I, understanding public importance theater, ordered the construction of a “comedy temple” on Red Square. When St. Petersburg became the capital, the first theater was built there by the German Mann. During Peter's time, dramatic art was so valued that even the Spiritual Regulations of 1722 ordered seminaries to “force students to act out moral comedies in their free time.” The theater achieved significant improvements in the 18th century during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. The activity of the “first Russian playwright” Sumarokov dates back to this time, of whose tragedies “Khorev” enjoyed particular success. Women appeared on stage for the first time (see Ananyin). Empress Catherine II was very fond of theater and herself wrote and translated plays for it. She founded the people's theater in St. Petersburg. In 1824, the huge luxurious building of the Bolshoi Theater was built, and soon after it the building of the Maly Theater was built. At the end of the 19th century there were 172 theaters in Russia.
43. “The Tale of Ulyaniya Osorgina” as a biographical story . This story is the first biography of a Russian noblewoman in the DRL, who lives entirely with household concerns and family affairs. Her fate was not easy: an orphaned childhood, first in the house of her grandmother, and then of her aunt, where she constantly listened to reproaches from her cousins. At the age of 16 she was married to a wealthy nobleman. From then on, she had the difficult burden of running the household of a rich estate. She had to please all her relatives, as well as monitor the work of the servants, and she herself was engaged in either spinning or embroidery. At the same time, Juliania had to resolve conflicts that arose between the servants and the gentlemen. These conflicts once resulted in an open rebellion of the courtyards (slaves), during which the eldest son was killed. Twice Juliana experienced famine years (in her youth and in her old age). The story truthfully depicts the position of a married woman in a large noble family, her lack of rights and numerous responsibilities. According to the author, she is a “saint,” but because of her housework, she is deprived of the opportunity to attend church. Juliania helps the starving, cares for the sick during the “pestilence.” This story presents the image of an intelligent Russian woman, energetic, courageously enduring all trials, cat. They attack her. So, Osoryin paints in the story the ideal appearance of a Russian woman of that time. Juliania’s character emphasizes the traits of Christian meekness, humility and patience, love for the poor, and generosity. In her old age, she indulges in asceticism: she sleeps on the stove, placing logs and iron keys under her sides, and puts nut shells in her boots under her bare feet. Osoryin also uses traditional hagiography motifs from religious fiction: demons want to kill Blianiyu, but St. Nikolai saves her. As befits Saint Juliana, she foresees her death and dies piously, and 10 years later they find her incorruptible body, which is capable of working miracles. Thus. The story closely intertwines the motifs of everyday stories with elements of the hagiographic genre. The story is devoid of the traditional introduction, lamentation and praise.
44: Hagiographic tradition and the artistic nature of the “life” .
The genre of the work is complex: - artistic-autobiographical - memoirs - plot devices of life (namely birth from pious parents, reflections on Christian dogmas, description of miracles, many episodes are borrowed or described by analogy with other biblical lives) Composition: internally free --episodes alternate, obeying the author's associations (having completed the story, he returns to it again, remembering the details) -appeal to the epiphany (a form of conversation) The language reflects the characteristics of the author's speech - uses words of different styles depending on the subject of the description (introduction high vocabulary) -Avvakumovsky conversation, tells with a smile, jokes - treats himself with irony (he came, dragged himself) - speaks in a simple way about “high matters” - oral conversation, literally conveys many conversations - unliterary speech. Habakkuk's attitude towards people. Habakkuk's assessment of other people is subjective and depends on whether the person accepted the new faith or not (accepted-bad). There are a number of characters about whom Habakkum cannot clearly judge or sympathize with them despite his change of faith. He has a negative attitude towards Latins (Catholics) and is more lenient towards pagans. The attitude towards the king also changes. In the early editions, Avvakum sees guilt in the church schism that occurred, the rebellion in Nikon and his followers. He said that maybe God ordered it this way, but not the king! Later, Habakkuk begins to blame the king.
32: “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia” Authorship is attributed to Ermolai-Erasmus, because he skillfully reworked what had been created earlier. This story dates back to the 16th century, and its plot about love developed in the 15th century. This story about life is built on a combination of folklore and book, Christian reading. The story can be divided into an introduction and 4 parts. Each part has a key plot point: Obsession. The story of the snake fighter was widespread in folklore, but the names of Peter and Paul, as well as the motif of temptation, the tempting snake, go back to Christian mythologies. Healing. The plot of the wise maiden goes back to folklore. Fevronia speaks in riddles, by this the author emphasizes her wisdom (and maybe cunning); test motive; Fevronia herself achieves happiness with her intelligence and gift of healing. However, this episode can be read from the point of view of the genre of life - Fevronia takes what is destined for her from above. That. 16th century literature reveals character, a unique personality that has its own personal character, therefore Fevronia’s gift can be considered both as a divine gift and as Fevronia’s personal merit. Temptation. The fight against the boyars, the incident on the ship and the miracle with the trees. The first episode with the boyars goes back to the commandment “do not judge, lest you be judged.” The second episode goes back to the Gospel thought that he who looks with lust has already sinned; Fevronia warns the merchant against the sin of adultery. The third episode is a kind of symbol of the tree of the world (life), which goes back to folklore. A wonderful death. Peter calls on Fevronia and she does not have time to finish the cover (“air”), leaving her work to future pure, wise, faithful wives. Conclusions: The story is consonant with many folklore stories and Western European love stories (“Tristan and Isolde”). It skillfully intertwines Christian ethics, motives with art. Achievements of folklore. Fevronia has her own character. The story is not about love passion, but about married life.
