Portal of educational literature! Culture in the post-Soviet period.

Two main periods can be distinguished in post-Soviet culture. The first period is the period of perestroika, active reforms and change social order Russia. And the second period is modern culture. Consider the main achievements of culture in each of these periods.

perestroika

Characteristics of historical conditions.

Perestroika is a decisive overcoming of stagnant processes and the breaking down of the braking mechanism, the creation of an effective acceleration mechanism based on the creativity of the masses. As a result of this process, the spiritual life of the country has undergone major changes due to democratization and publicity. The ideological press was removed, censorship was abolished, archives began to open. The transition to a market economy has begun. A "revolution of minds" is taking place, internal opposition is growing, further ways development of the country.

Development of education and mass media.

In the field of education, changes began to occur no earlier than 1988. Until that time, everything went according to the traditions of the "era of decline and stagnation." Trying to correct the existing situation, the state went in two main directions: reducing guardianship over education and increasing wages teachers. But the educational process did not improve from this, because, despite the increase in salaries, the shortage of personnel was constantly increasing, in addition, the interest in education among young people dropped sharply.

A huge role in the renewal Soviet society played by the media. The main practical achievement of perestroika was perestroika. Various newspapers are published - Moskovskaya Pravda, Chimes; magazines - "Spark", "Capital", etc. The nature of television is changing: teleconferences (Pozner and Donahue) have become possible, foreign political scientists, historians, and economists have appeared on the screens; congresses began to be broadcast people's deputies. The number of entertainment programs has increased: KVN, Field of Miracles, What? Where? When?". In 1990, the commercial channel "2 x 2" began to work with advertising.

Science achievements.

Applied industries have received some development, as the need for specific technical and economic developments has increased. The fundamental sciences, which have always been the pride of the country, ended up on a “starvation diet”. During the second half of the 1980s, there were practically no serious discoveries, and the leading branches of science, such as cosmonautics, nuclear physics, and others, hardly maintained the level achieved in the previous period. In 1990, the Decree of the President of the USSR "On the Status of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR" was issued. The Academy of Sciences became a self-governing organization and was freed from state tutelage. In the same year, the Russian Academy of Sciences was re-established. Cooperation between scientists and technologists from Germany, the USA, France, etc. began. Since 1986, the Mir station began to work in Earth's orbit. For many years of its work, dozens of cosmonauts, including foreigners, have visited the station.

Literature.

Thanks to the efforts creative intelligentsia the country was returned the names of writers - emigrants, for the first time in the USSR their books were published - "We" by E. Zamyatin, "Summer of the Lord" by I. Shmelev, historical novels M. Aldagnova. M. Gorky's article "Untimely Thoughts" was published. The novels - B. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago", A. Platonov "The Pit" saw the light of day. In 1998, the publication of books by A. Solzhenitsyn was resumed in our country: “The Gulag Archipelago”, “The Cancer Ward, etc.” Works published during these years have significantly enriched fiction: “White Clothes” by A. Dudintsev, “A Golden Cloud Spent the Night” by A. Pristavkin, “Life and Fate” by V. Grossman. There has been an extraordinary increase in interest in historical literature. For the first time in Russian, the memoirs of A.F. Kerensky. In the collection "In a foreign land. The Epoch in Persons” included memoirs of political figures - M.V. Rodzianko, P.N. Milyukov, Generalov A.I. Denikin, P.N. Vraegel.

Art.

Broad democratization touched the theatre. Action-packed performances were released that reflected the changes in the life of the country. This is the "Wall" in the "Sovremennik", "Silver Wedding" in the Moscow Art Theater, "Article" in the Theater of the Soviet Army. But the economic crisis had a negative impact on the development of the theater: the number of spectators noticeably decreased, there was not enough money to pay decent wages for actors, to repair buildings and purchase props. The cinema has also undergone major changes. Previously banned films were removed from the shelves: "Traffic Check", "Bad Joke" and others. Several films received awards international festivals: “Dark Eyes”, “Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District”, etc. During the years of perestroika, musical art was very diverse: it was the classical composer A. Schnittke, and the world-class cellist M. Rostropovich, and the rock musician B. Grebenshchikov, and forbidden bards 70 -80s Yu. Vizbor, V. Vysotsky. The stage flourished: Pugacheva, Vaikule, Malinin, Gazmanov and others. The most popular were music bands- "Movie", " Tender May”,“ DDT ”,“ Alice ”.

Along with some positive factors, which were achieved primarily due to the weakening of censorship and control over creativity, in general, there is a sharp decline in the general cultural society. The prestige of education and the importance of domestic specialists are being lost, lack of spirituality is growing, and crime is increasing. Culture is increasingly under the control of commerce. Academician D.S. Likhachev called this state of society "cultural savagery."

A significant part of the population of Russia, having lost faith in the tsar and trust in the church, made Bolshevism their religion and made a revolution. However, there is a serious difference between Christian eschatology and Bolshevik utopia, well shown by the German philosopher G. Rohrmaser: "The fundamental difference between utopia,

including socialist, from Christian eschatology lies in the fact that the latter is historically, politically realized as the present, and not as the future! Christian eschatology contains no other meaning than the idea of how to make a person capable of perceiving the present, while utopian thinking depicts the future as the result of the denial of the present. Utopia is realized in the process of rescuing a person from the present, when a person loses his present. Christian eschatology, on the contrary, leads a person out of the insane faith in the future that has taken possession of him, preoccupied with the fact that a person always only has to or wants to live, but never lives. This eschatology orients him to the present” 41 . Thus, a future-oriented utopia gives the sanction for the destruction of the present. This is what revolutions are terrible for. The price of the revolution for Russia and Russian culture is very high. Many creators of culture were forced to leave Russia. Russian emigration of the XX century. gave surprisingly much world culture and science. One can cite many names of people who worked in physics, chemistry, philosophy, literature, biology, painting, sculpture, who created entire trends, schools and showed the world great examples of national national genius. The contribution of Russian thinkers abroad to the world philosophical process, translations and publications of their works in the main languages of the world, significantly contributed to the recognition of Russian philosophy as highly developed and original. They have priority in posing a number of problems of cultural studies, the history of philosophy, the philosophy of history. Among them are comprehension of the role of Orthodoxy in the development of the Russian people, analysis of the national specifics of Russian culture, reflections on the main features of the Russian nation in the 20th century, on the “Russian idea”, etc.

Cultural life in Soviet Russia acquired a new dimension. Although until the early 1930s existed relatively

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ideological pluralism, there were various literary and artistic unions and groupings, the leading one was the installation of a total break with the past, the suppression of the individual and the exaltation of the masses, the collective. IN artistic creativity there were even calls to burn Raphael in the name of our tomorrow, to destroy museums, to trample on art, flowers. Social utopianism flourished, a powerful impulse towards new forms of life in all its spheres was observed, various technical, literary, artistic, architectural projects were put forward, up to extravagant ones. For example, there was talk about the communist transformation of the whole way of life. It was planned to build such residential buildings in which there would be only small secluded bedrooms, and dining rooms, kitchens, and children's rooms would become common to everyone.

The denial of the immortality of the soul led to the idea of the immortality of the body. The placement of Lenin's body in the mausoleum was also associated with the hope of someday resurrecting him. In the subconscious of the Russian people, there has always been a glimmer of hope for the possibility of the immortality of the body. N. F. Fedorov considered the main problem of "the resurrection of the fathers." Communism, which swung at the creation of the kingdom of God on Earth, received approval from the people also because it supported the belief in bodily immortality. The death of a child in "Chevengur" by A. Platonov is the main proof that communism does not yet exist. The generation of people who grew up in the conditions of Soviet mythology was shocked by the physical death of Stalin, is this not the reason for such a grandiose “great farewell”, and did not faith in communism collapse on a subconscious level after this death?

Bolshevism brought to its logical conclusion formed in the European thought of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the idea of active transformation, alteration of nature. Already in the early years Soviet power L. D. Trotsky declared that, having done away with class enemies, the Bolsheviks would begin to remake nature. Maxim Gorky in a 3-volume collection

writings, published in the 50s, you can find an article called "About the struggle with nature." In other articles, Gorky argued that “in the Union of Soviets there is a struggle between the reasonably organized will of the working masses against the elemental forces of nature and against that “spontaneity” in man, which in essence is nothing more than the instinctive anarchism of the individual.” Culture, according to Gorky, turns out to be the violence of the mind over the zoological instincts of people. Theoretical calculations were put into practice in the post-war "great Stalinist plan transformations of nature. After Stalin's death, construction was stopped a large number large facilities, including the Main Turkmen Canal, the Volga-Ural Canal, the Volga-Caspian Waterway, the Chum-Salekhard-Igarka polar railway. The last echo of those times was the infamous project of transferring part of the flow of northern rivers to the south.

In the 30s. in the development of culture has come new stage. Relative pluralism was over. All figures of literature and art were united in single unified unions. The only one approved artistic method - method of socialist realism. Utopian impulses were put to an end. Some elements of the national cultural tradition. There was a national model of totalitarianism. It turned out that some archaic state of society was restored. Man is totally involved in public structures, and the non-singling out of a person from the masses is one of the main features of the archaic social system.

However, at resemblance, for example, with the position of a person in the Moscow kingdom, there were serious differences. The industrialization of society gave it dynamics, the stability of an archaic society was impossible. The instability of a person's position in society, his inorganic involvement in social

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structure made a person value their social status even more. The need for unity with other people is a natural human need of any culture. Even in the individualistic culture of the West, the phenomenon of the so-called escapism i.e. escape from freedom noted by E. Fromm. Another thing is when this need becomes the only and dominant one. Then it is a powerful psychological root of social utopianism, a social support for designing an ideal society. Any similar project leads to totalitarianism, which in the broadest sense of the word is the domination of the universal over the individual, the impersonal over the personal, all over one. The natural limiter of totalitarianism is property, which is understood not simply as an economic category, but as a general civilizational basis for the development of individual freedom.

The post-Stalin period of national history is characterized by a slow, gradual, with zigzags and digressions, the restoration of contacts and ties with world culture, the understanding of the role of the individual, universal values is being rethought. The Soviet period had a serious impact on the way of thinking of the people, their mentality, typical personality traits of a Russian person. This was noted by prominent writers, "experts human souls» M. A. Sholokhov and A. I. Solzhenitsyn. According to the son of M. A. Sholokhov, his father told him that pre-revolutionary people had a different attitude to life: “as to something infinitely strong, stable, incommensurable with human goals and opportunities... From childhood, a person learned stamina, accustomed himself to blame his failures on himself, and not life...” 42 A. I. Solzhenitsyn notes loss by the people of such qualities as openness, straightforwardness, accommodatingness, long-suffering, endurance, non-pursuit of external success, readiness for self-condemnation and repentance etc. 43

In our time, culture is increasingly recognized as the epicenter of human existence. The conviction is being strengthened that any people, any nation can exist and develop only if they retain their cultural identity, do not lose the originality of their culture. However, they do not fade at all. Chinese wall from other peoples and nations, interact with them, exchanging cultural values. In complex historical and natural conditions Russia survived, created its original original culture, fertilized by the influence of both the West and the East, and in turn enriched world culture with its influence. Before modern national culture stands difficult task - to develop your strategic course for the future in a rapidly changing world. There is an important prerequisite for this - the achievement of universal literacy, a significant increase in the education of the people. Nevertheless, the solution of this global task is extremely difficult, as it rests on the need to realize the deep contradictions inherent in our culture throughout its historical development.

These contradictions constantly manifested themselves in various spheres of life, reflected in art, primarily in fiction, in the search for a high value-semantic content of life, which gave Russian culture an undoubted global importance. In our culture, one can find many contradictions inherent in any other cultures: between individualism and collectivism, high and ordinary, elitist and folk, etc. religiosity, the cult of materialism and adherence to lofty spiritual ideals, total statehood and unbridled anarchy, etc. The mysterious antinomy of Russian culture is literally in everything

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beautifully described by N. A. Berdyaev in his work “The Russian Idea”. Russia, on the one hand, - the most stateless, the most anarchic country in the world, and on the other - the most state-owned, most bureaucratic country in the world. Russia - a country of unlimited freedom of spirit, the most non-bourgeois country in the world, and at the same time - a country devoid of consciousness of individual rights, a country of merchants, money-grubbers, unprecedented bribery of officials. Infinite love for people, Christ's love, is combined among Russians with cruelty, slavish obedience.

Time of Troubles, which is now experiencing domestic culture - is not a new phenomenon, but our culture has always found one or another answer to the challenges of the time, continuing to develop. Moreover, it was in the most difficult periods of national history that the greatest ideas and works were born, new traditions and value orientations. The features of the current "Time of Troubles" in Russia are that it coincides with the global world crisis, and the Russian crisis is part of the world crisis, which is most acutely felt in Russia.

The whole world was at a crossroads at the turn of the 21st century, we are talking about the change in the very type of culture that has been formed within the framework of Western civilization over the past few centuries. Therefore, the thesis about the alleged “falling out of Russia” after the events of 1917 from the world civilization and the need to now return to this civilization seems more than controversial. It is impossible to “fall out of civilization” while on Earth without flying away, say, to the Moon or Maps, besides world civilization- this is a set of civilizations of different countries and peoples who did not keep pace at all. Among these civilizations is the Russian one, which in the Soviet period of history made a considerable contribution to the treasury of world civilization, it is enough to mention at least the world-historical role of our people in crushing

research institutes of Nazism and fascism, successes in the exploration of outer space, in social transformations.

The revival of culture is the most important condition for the renewal of our society. Many problems have accumulated in the field of culture. In the last decade, new layers of spiritual culture have opened up, which were previously hidden in unpublished art and philosophical works, not performed musical works, banned pictures and movies. It became possible to look at many things with different eyes. In modern domestic culture, in an outlandish way, incompatible values and orientation: collectivism, catholicity and individualism, egoism, deliberate politicization and demonstrative apathy, statehood and anarchy and so on. Indeed, today, as if on an equal footing, such not only unrelated, but mutually exclusive phenomena coexist as the newly acquired cultural values of the Russian diaspora, the newly rethought classical heritage, the values of the official Soviet culture. A general picture of cultural life is emerging, characteristic of postmodernism, which was widespread in the world by the end of the 20th century. It's a special kind of mindset aimed at the rejection of all traditions, the establishment of any truths, focused on unbridled pluralism, recognition of any cultural manifestations as equivalent. Postmodernism is not able to reconcile the irreconcilable, since it does not put forward fruitful ideas for this, it only combines contrasts as the source material for further cultural and historical creativity.

The prerequisites for the current socio-cultural situation emerged several decades ago. The widespread introduction of the achievements of science and technology into the sphere of production and everyday life has significantly changed the forms of functioning of culture. Wide use

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household radio technology led to fundamental changes in the forms of production, distribution and consumption of spiritual values. "Cassette culture" has become uncensored, because the selection, reproduction and consumption is carried out through the free will of people. A special type of so-called home culture, whose constituent elements are, in addition to books, video cassettes, VCR, radio, TV, personal computer. It is as if a “bank of world culture” is being formed in the “memory of an apartment”. Along with positive traits there is also a trend of increasing spiritual isolation of the individual. The system of socialization of society as a whole is changing radically, the sphere of interpersonal relations is significantly reduced.

By the end of the XX century. Russia again faced a choice of path. Today, culture, like the whole country, has entered an intertime, fraught with different perspectives.

The material base of culture is in a state of deep crisis. Collapsing and burning libraries, lack of theater and concert halls, lack of appropriations aimed at supporting and disseminating the values of folk, classical culture, contrast sharply with the explosion of interest in cultural property that is characteristic of many countries. A complex problem that cannot but excite many is the interaction between culture and the market. There is a commercialization of culture, in which the so-called "non-commercial" works of art remain unnoticed, the possibility of mastering suffers classical heritage. With the huge cultural potential accumulated by previous generations, the spiritual impoverishment of the people is taking place. Mass lack of culture is one of the main causes of many ills in the economy, environmental disasters. On the basis of lack of spirituality, crime and violence are growing, there is a decline in morality. The danger to the present and future of the country is plight science and education.

Russia's entry into the market led to many unforeseen and unexpected consequences for spiritual culture. Many of the representatives of the old culture were out of work, unable to adapt to new conditions. The assertion of freedom of speech deprived literature and other arts of that important dignity that they had before - to tell the truth, improving Aesopian language in order to circumvent censorship. Literature, which took a long time to leading place in system national culture and to which interest has now declined significantly. In addition, the speed of social change was such that it was not easy to immediately realize it. If the creation of cultural works is approached as a profitable business, as an ordinary ordinary product, then it is not the striving for excellence, high spiritual ideals that prevails, but for minimal cost get the maximum benefit. Culture is now compelled to focus not on spiritual man, but on economic man, indulging his basest passions and tastes and reducing him to the level of an animal. A kind of “market personality” is being formed, characterizing which one of the greatest philosophers of the 20th century. E. Fromm wrote that "a person is no longer interested in his own life or in his own happiness, he is only concerned not to lose the ability to sell" 44 . Identifying ways forward cultural development became the subject of heated discussions in society, because the state ceased to dictate its requirements to culture, the centralized management system and a unified cultural policy disappeared. One of the points of view is that the state should not interfere in the affairs of culture, since this is fraught with the establishment of its new dictate over culture, and culture itself will find means for its survival. Another point of view seems to be more reasonable.

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which consists in the fact that, while ensuring freedom of culture, the right to cultural identity, the state assumes the development of strategic tasks of cultural construction and the responsibility for the protection of the cultural and historical national heritage, the necessary financial support cultural property. The state must be aware that culture cannot be left to business; its support, including education and science, is of great importance for maintaining the moral and mental health of the nation.

The crisis of spirituality causes severe mental discomfort for many people, as the mechanism of identification with superpersonal values is seriously damaged. Not a single culture exists without this mechanism, and in modern Russia all superpersonal values have become dubious. Despite the contradictory characteristics of the national culture, society cannot allow separation from its cultural heritage, as this inevitably means its suicide. A decaying culture is little adapted to transformations, because the impetus for creative change comes from values that are cultural categories. Only an integrated and strong national culture can relatively easily adapt new goals to its values and master new patterns of behavior.

Process cultural borrowings is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. Some borrowed forms easily fit into the context of the borrowing culture, others fit in with great difficulty, and still others are completely rejected. The point is that borrowing should be carried out in forms compatible with the values of the borrowing culture. In culture, one cannot follow world standards. Each society forms a unique system of values. The famous scientist K. Levi-Strauss wrote about this as follows: “... The originality of each of the cultures lies first

all in her own way of solving problems, the perspective placement of values that are common to all people. Only their significance is never the same in different cultures ah, and therefore modern etiology is increasingly striving to understand the origins of this mysterious choice” 45 .

Unfortunately, modern Russia is again going through radical changes, accompanied by tendencies towards the destruction or abandonment of many positive achievements of the past. All this is done for the sake of speedy implementation. market economy who supposedly puts everything in its place. Meanwhile, with a serious study of the history of other countries, including the most "market" ones, it turns out that it was not the market that created new values and patterns of behavior in them, but the national culture of these countries mastered the market, created both moral justifications for "market behavior" and and restrictions on this behavior by cultural taboos.

An analysis of the state of modern domestic culture reveals the absence or weakness of sustainable cultural forms, reproducing the social system, reliable connectivity of cultural elements in time and space. In our opinion, a fairly accurate description of the current state of Russia is contained in the following words of the philosopher V. E. Kemerov: “Russia exists as an indefinite aggregate social groups, regional formations, subcultures united by a common space, but weakly bound by time social reproduction, productive activity, ideas about the prospects, etc. The modernity of all these formations remains a problem» 46 . The collapse of the totalitarian regime quickly exposed the underdetermination, the lack of manifestation of many forms of our life, which was characteristic of Russian culture before and that some Russian thinkers defined as "lack of middle region culture".

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N. O. Lossky pointed out that “lack of attention to the middle area of culture, no matter what justifying circumstances we find, there is still negative side Russian life" 47 . Hence the extremely wide range of good and evil, on the one hand, colossal achievements, and on the other hand, stunning destruction and cataclysms. Our culture may well respond to challenges modern world. But for this it is necessary to move on to such a form of its self-consciousness that would cease to reproduce the same mechanisms of irreconcilable struggle, tough confrontation, and the absence of a “middle”. We must by all means get away from thinking oriented towards maximalism, a radical revolution and the reorganization of everything and everything in the shortest possible time.

Along with the tendencies of confrontation and irreconcilable uncompromising struggle in Russian society, there is an intensive search for centrist principles that can neutralize destructive tendencies. Avoiding radicalism can be achieved by creating a stable system of public self-government and the formation of a median culture that guarantees the participation of various social, ethnic and confessional communities. For the normal existence of society, a diverse self-organizing cultural environment is necessary. This environment includes socio-cultural objects associated with the creation and dissemination of cultural values, such as scientific, educational, artistic institutions, organizations, etc. However, the most important thing is the relationship of people, the conditions for their Everyday life spiritual and moral atmosphere. The process of forming a cultural environment is the basis of cultural renewal, without such an environment it is impossible to overcome the action of social and psychological mechanisms that divide society. Academician D.S. Likhachev believed that preservation of the cultural environment is no less essential task,

than saving surrounding nature. Cultural environment is also necessary for the spiritual, moral life, like nature is necessary for man for his biological life 48. Culture is a holistic and organic phenomenon. We need to learn that it is not artificially constructed or transformed, such experiments only lead to its damage and destruction. With great difficulty in the minds of many people, including scientists, the idea of the specificity and diversity of the development of different cultures is affirmed, each of which is integrated into the global civilizational process in its own way, based on its deep spiritual and moral archetypes, which cannot be distributed according to ranks into progressive and reactionary. The well-known Russian philosopher Yu. M. Borodai believes that “... where the earthly life of people developed more or less tolerably, it was built not on speculative conjectures and calculations, but on shrines, that is, on moral imperatives, "prejudices", if you like, peculiar to each of the peoples, which makes them unique cathedral personalities, public individuals. human world multicolored and interesting precisely because the basis of the culture of each of the peoples is their cult shrines, which are not subject to any logical justification and are not adequately translated into the language of another culture» 49 . However, “this does not mean at all that it is necessary to reject someone else’s from the threshold. It is possible and necessary to study other experience, but it is worth remembering that this is precisely someone else's experience. There are different cultures in the world, but they cannot be "better", "worse", "right", "wrong". The mistake is the desire to "correct", "improve", "civilize" them according to some model, to idealize some model. Genuine universal human values can arise only in the dialogue of all earthly societies and civilizations. The words of F. M. Dostoevsky sound very modern: “Let one of the theorists show us that

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universal human ideal, which every person must develop from himself. The whole of humanity has not yet worked out such an ideal... And if the universal human ideal that they have was worked out by the West alone, then can it be called so perfect that absolutely every other nation should give up trying to bring something of itself into the task of working out a perfect human ideal and limiting ourselves to passive assimilation of the ideal for oneself from Western books” 51 .

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48. Likhachev D.S. Declaration of the rights of culture // Culturology: Nauch.-obraz, vestn. 1996. No. 1.

49. Boroday Yu. M. Erotic-death-taboo: the tragedy of human consciousness. M., 1996. S. 380-381.

50. Gumilyov L. N. From Rus' to Russia. M., 1992. S. 200.

51. Dostoevsky F. M. Sobr. cit.: V 30 t. L., T. 20, S. 6-7.

Foreword ................................................................ ................. 3

Chapter 1. Culture, civilization, history .................... 8

Chapter 2. Primitive roots of world civilizations.... 33

Chapter 3 traditional societies East... 70

Chapter 4

Chapter 5 European civilization: the ancient world... 174

Chapter 6. Civilizations of the Medieval West........ 244

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9. The fate of culture and civilization in the XX century ... ..401

Chapter 10

Chapter 11. Culture and civilizational processes in Russia.......... 469

Tutorial

HISTORY OF WORLD CULTURE

(world civilizations)

Managing editor I. Zhilyakov

Cover V. Kirichenko

Editor S. Dudarenok

Proofreaders: O. Milovanova, N. Peredisty

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Period 1985-1991 entered modern history Russia as a period of "perestroika and glasnost". During the reign of the last General Secretary of the CPSU and the first President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, important events took place in the country and in the world: Soviet Union and the socialist camp, the monopoly of the Communist Party was undermined, the economy was liberalized and censorship was softened, there were signs of freedom of speech.

At the same time worsened financial situation people, the planned economy collapsed. Education Russian Federation, the Constitution of which was approved at a national referendum in 1993, and the coming to power of B.N. Yeltsin seriously influenced the cultural situation in the country. M. L. Rostropovia, G. Vishnevskaya, writers A. Solzhenitsyn and T. Voinovich, artist E. Neizvestny returned to the country from emigration and exile ... At the same time, tens of thousands of scientists and specialists emigrated from Russia, mainly in technical sciences.

Between 1991 and 1994, the volume of federal allocations for science in Russia decreased by 80%. The outflow of scientists aged 31-45 years abroad amounted to 70-90 thousand annually. On the contrary, the influx of young personnel has sharply decreased. In 1994, the United States sold 444,000 patents and licenses, while Russia sold only 4,000. Scientific potential Russia decreased by 3 times: in 1980 there were over 3 million specialists employed in science, in 1996 - less than 1 million.

"Brain drain" is possible only from those countries that have a high scientific and cultural potential. If in Europe and America Russian scientists and specialists were accepted into the best scientific laboratories, this means that Soviet science in previous years had reached the forefront.

It turned out that Russia, even being in an economic crisis, is able to offer the world dozens, hundreds of unique discoveries from various fields of science and technology: the treatment of tumors; discoveries in the field of genetic engineering; ultraviolet sterilizers for medical instruments; lithium batteries, steel casting process, magnetic welding, artificial kidney, reflective fabric, cold cathodes for producing ions, etc.

Despite the reduction in funding for culture, more than 10 thousand private publishing houses appeared in the country in the 90s, which, for a short time published thousands of hitherto forbidden books, from Freud and Simmel to Berdyaev.

Hundreds of new journals, including literary ones, appeared, publishing excellent analytical works. Formed into an independent sphere religious culture. It consists not only of the number of believers that has increased several times, the restoration and construction of new churches and monasteries, the publication of monographs, yearbooks and magazines on religious subjects in many cities of Russia, but also the opening of universities, which they did not even dare to dream of under Soviet rule. For example, the Orthodox University. John the Theologian, which has six faculties (law, economics, history, theology, journalism, history). However, in painting, architecture and literature in the 90s did not appear outstanding talents, which could be attributed to the new, post-Soviet generation.

Today it is still difficult to draw final conclusions about the results of the development of national culture in the 1990s. Her creative results have not yet cleared up. Apparently, only our descendants can draw final conclusions.

Glossary:

The culture of Russia in its formation and development is an aspect of the historical dynamics of Russian culture, covering the period approximately from the 8th century. and to the present.

The culture of Russia in modern culture is an actualistic and prognostic aspect of considering culture in general with an emphasis on its Russian component, on the role and place of Russia in modern culture. 2. The place of Russian culture in world culture. The culture of Russia is included in the Slavic-Byzantine cultural-historical type, based on Orthodoxy.

World culture - common name all cultural historical types and traditions of mankind.

Questions for control: 1. What does the Bolshevik ideal of the cultural transformation of Russia have in common with the traditional orientations of the national consciousness?

Why there was a need to liberalize the party's policy in the field of culture Tue. floor. 20th century?

How did the relationship between the authorities and the creative intelligentsia develop?

Artistic culture of post-Soviet Russia.

Post-Soviet culture: stages of formation. Political and economic crisis in post-Soviet Russia. Mass disorientation of society, a syndrome of loss of identity, an explosion of individualism. Changing the relationship between culture and power: the disappearance of a unified cultural policy. Stagnation and decline of artistic culture, loss of identity. The Search for New Cultural Models: Camt and Thrash Phenomenon. Postmodernism in post-Soviet Russia. De-ideologization and pluralism of creativity. Polystylism, westernization, commercialization, criminalization of culture and art. Art Associations of Post-Soviet Russia. Personalities of figures of certain types of art, representing groups that are different in ideological and artistic and aesthetic terms.

The culture of post-Soviet Russia includes the culture of the era of Perestroika and modern Russia. Although the USSR still existed during Perestroika, the life of Soviet people has changed a lot since 1985. The era of Perestroika refers to those periods of national history for which the significance of the processes taking place in culture is especially great. MS Gorbachev began his reforms in the sphere of public and cultural life. One of the first slogans of the new era was "glasnost", i.e. a focus on expanding the awareness of the masses about the activities of the party and government, openness, publicity of decisions made, a focus on free discussion of the accumulated shortcomings and negative phenomena in the life of Soviet society. Glasnost was conceived as a revival and modernization of the state ideology, but it was not possible to keep the process that had begun under state and party control. Everywhere began an open discussion of issues that earlier, in the era of total control, were discussed secretly "in the kitchens." The facts of abuses by the party nomenklatura, revealed by glasnost, sharply undermined the authority of the party, depriving it of its monopoly on the truth.

There was a rapid process of restoring those pages of the country's history that were hushed up in Soviet time.

"Thick" literary magazines published literary works, previously unknown to a wide circle of Soviet readers, memoirs of eyewitnesses and memoirs, representing a new look at historical truth. Due to this, their circulation increased dramatically, and subscriptions to the most popular of them (Neva, Novy Mir, Yunost) fell into the category of an acute shortage and were distributed in a limited number.

For several years, novels by A. I. Solzhenitsyn ("In the First Circle", "The Cancer Ward", "The Gulag Archipelago"), Y. Dombrovsky ("Keeper of Antiquities"), E. I. Zamyatin (“We”), M. A. Aldanova (“Saint Helena, a small island”), B. L. Pasternak (“Doctor Zhivago”), M. A. Bulgakov (“The Master and Margarita”), V. V. Nabokov (“Lolita”), B. Pilnyak (“The Naked Year”, “The Tale of the Unextinguished Moon”), A. Platonov (“Chevengur”, “The Pit”), poetic works by G. V. Ivanov, A. A. Akhmatova, N. S. Gumilyov, O. E. Mandelstam. On the theatrical stage, publicistic drama is of decisive importance. The most prominent representative of this trend was M. F. Shatrov (Marshak) ("The Dictatorship of Conscience"). A special public outcry was caused by works that dealt with the theme of Stalinism and Stalinist repressions. Not all of them were literary masterpieces, but they enjoyed the constant interest of readers of the perestroika period, because they "opened their eyes", talked about what had previously been hushed up.

A similar situation was observed in other forms of art. There was an intensive process of "returning" the creative heritage of artists who were previously under an ideological ban. The audience was able to see again the works of artists P. Filonov, K. Malevich, V. Kandinsky. IN musical culture the work of A. Schnittke, M. Rostropovich was returned, representatives of the musical “underground” (from the English “underground”, opposition to official / mass culture) entered the wide stage: groups “Nautilus”, “Aquarium”, “Kino”, etc. d.

The artistic analysis of the phenomenon of Stalinism became a defining trend in the work of writers, musicians and artists who worked directly during the years of perestroika. One of the most significant works Soviet literature Ch. Aitmatov's novel "The Block" was appreciated by contemporaries, which, like most of Aitmatov's works, is characterized by a combination of deep psychologism with folklore traditions, mythological imagery and metaphor. A notable phenomenon in the literature of the perestroika era, a kind of bestseller was the novel by A. N. Rybakov "Children of the Arbat", in which the era of the cult of personality is recreated through the prism of the fate of the generation of the 30s. The fate of genetic scientists, science under the conditions of a totalitarian regime is narrated in the novels by V. D. Dudintsev “White Clothes” and by D. A. Granin “Bison”. Post-war "orphanage" children who became accidental victims of events related to forced eviction from native land Chechens in 1944, the novel by A. I. Pristavkin “A Golden Cloud Spent the Night” is dedicated. All these works caused a great public outcry and played a significant role in the development of Russian culture, although often the journalistic component in them prevailed over the artistic one.

Little of what was created in that critical era has stood the test of time. In the visual arts, the "spirit of the times" was reflected in the paintings of I. S. Glazunov ("Eternal Russia"). Again popular genre, as it has always happened at critical moments in history, becomes a poster.

A number of remarkable films appeared in the artistic and documentary cinematography of the perestroika years: “Repentance” by T. Abuladze, “Is it easy to be young” by Y. Podnieks, “You can’t live like this” by S. Govorukhin, “Tomorrow there was a war” by Y. Kara, “Cold summer fifty-third." In addition to serious, deep films, many very weak films were shot, the authors of which tried to ensure the interest of the audience. Such films were designed for scandalous popularity, their figurative system was built in contrast with traditional Soviet cinema, in which it was customary to avoid excessive naturalism, sex scenes and other vulgar techniques. Such films were colloquially called "chernukhi" ("Little Vera" directed by V. Pichul).

an important role in the cultural and public life acquired journalism. Articles were published in the magazines Znamya, Novy Mir, Ogonyok, and Literaturnaya Gazeta. The weekly Arguments and Facts was especially popular among readers in those days.

However, television journalistic programs such as Vzglyad, Twelfth Floor, Before and After Midnight, and 600 Seconds had the widest audience. Despite the fact that these programs were broadcast at an inconvenient time for most viewers (late in the evening), they were very popular, and the stories shown in them became the subject of general discussion. Journalists turned to the most burning and exciting topics of our time: youth problems, the war in Afghanistan, environmental disasters, etc. The hosts of the programs were not like traditional Soviet announcers: relaxed, modern, smart (V. Listyev, V. Lyubimov, V. Molchanov and etc.).

A distinctive feature of the culture of modern Russia is in its diversity, variety of manifestations. creativity in all areas of public life. The diversity of modern cultural life is most clearly manifested in literature. Among the most significant trends in it, postmodernism should be noted. The classics of European postmodernism are Jorge-Luis Borges, Umberto Eco, Joan Fowles. A characteristic feature of the concept of postmodernism is "citation". The material for creative comprehension in a postmodern work is not so much real life events as impressions from books previously read by the author, films seen, music heard. The perception of a work often turns for a thoughtful reader into solving a kind of rebus - where did it come from. This is a kind of game. Developing any plot move, the author at the same time, as it were, alludes to some well-known literary or cinematic image or cliché. For example, V. Pelevin's novel "Chapaev and Emptiness" is largely built on allusions to popular Soviet jokes about Chapaev and the film of the Vasiliev brothers, although the book is about something completely different. Pelevin's Chapaev has nothing in common with a real hero civil war no, but hints and references to the image created on the screen by the actor Babochkin are guessed in it. Citation is also characteristic of Pelevin's other popular works "Generation P", "Amon Ra", "The Life of Insects", etc.

The change in artistic tastes was also expressed in the fact that in the “returned” (i.e., written back in Soviet times, but not published then for censorship reasons) literature, the modern reader is no longer interested in civic-journalistic novels about the era of Stalinism, as it was ten years ago, but postmodernist works with elements of a “quote” game: “Moscow - Petushki” by Venedikt Erofeev, “ Pushkin House» Andrey Bitov and others.

With the penetration of market relations into the book publishing business, the shelves of bookstores throughout the post-Soviet space were flooded with fiction and entertainment literature of the most varied quality: detective stories, science fiction, the so-called. women's novels. Among the masters detective genre the most famous are V. Dotsenko (“Mad”), F. Neznansky (“March of the Turkish”), A. Marinina (a series of novels about the investigator A. Kamenskaya), later they were joined by P. Dashkova, D. Dontsova (Daria Vasilyeva, Evlampia Romanova, Viola Tarakanova, Ivan Podushkin) and T. Ustinova. To replace science fiction, popular in the 60-80s. comes fiction in the style of "fantasy", the ancestor of which in world literature was English. writer J. Tolkien. Russian fantasy is represented by the works of M. Semenova ("Wolfhound") and N. Perumov (Diamond Sword, Wooden Sword, etc.). If in science fiction fiction is, as a rule, technical in nature (the authors conditionally assume that there is a time machine, that interstellar flights are possible, etc.), then fantasy comes from the assumption of the reality of phenomena that are essentially fabulous (heroes use magic, struggle with evil magicians, communicate with dragons, elves, gnomes, etc.). The closest analogy to fantasy is a literary fairy tale, but "a fairy tale for adults."

Postmodernism is a phenomenon that goes beyond literature. Its manifestations can be found in cinema, theater, painting and music. The popular (rather even fashionable) artist Nikas Sofronov, who writes his paintings on old icon boards (also a kind of “quotes”), can be considered a postmodernist.

In monumental sculpture, the works of the Moscow sculptor Zurab Tsereteli, the author of the monument to Peter the Great in Moscow, which caused a lot of controversy among the townspeople and an unambiguously negative attitude from art critics, are the most popular, although somewhat scandalous.

In the new Russian cinematography, the most noticeable is the work of the actor and director N. S. Mikhalkov. The film "Burnt by the Sun" was awarded the "Oscar" - the award of the American Film Academy. The film takes place in the 1930s. Main character- Divisional Commander Kotov, in whose image the type of man-symbol of the Stalin era is embodied: he is a famous military leader of the civil war, pioneer detachments are called after him, his portrait is known to everyone. The love line unexpectedly turns out to be connected with the theme of repression - the outwardly prosperous life of the omnipotent division commander, who has a direct telephone connection with Stalin himself, crumbles to dust. Nostalgia for the greatness, nobility and beauty of the bygone imperial Russia permeates the picture "The Barber of Siberia", filmed in 1998 (starring Oleg Menshikov and Julia Ormond).

The films of Alexei Balabanov "Brother" and "Brother-2" gained immense popularity among young people. The central character of both films Danila Bagrov, a young man who went through the Chechen war, is a strange combination of naivety and life sophistication; kindness, nobility and terrible cruelty coexist in him, allowing him to use weapons in search of “truth” without hesitation. The films feature the music of popular bands and performers, taken “straight from life”: “Nautilus”, Zemfira, etc. Other youth “hits” “Brigada” and “Boomer” can also be called ambiguous films.

Television has changed markedly in the last decade of the 20th century. New channels independent of the state appeared (NTV, TV-6 in 1993). Television has become a powerful weapon of political struggle, which predetermined the growth of the professional level of programs, and at the same time led to a decrease in trust in it as a source of information. Acute socio-political problems no longer arouse their former interest. Viewers prefer programs that highlight issues of private, family, personal life. Many new TV programs of the corresponding direction have appeared: “My family”, “So far, everyone is at home”, “I myself”, “About this”. A lot of airtime is occupied by entertainment programs: "Field of Miracles", "Guess the Melody", "Weak Link", "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" and others. Intellectual and cognitive programs “What? Where? When?”, “Clever and clever”, “Club of travelers”, “In the world of animals”, “Underwater odyssey of the Cousteau team”, etc. New projects of the reality show “Behind the Glass”, “House”, “Star Factory” appeared.

The processes of democratization that began in the second half of the 1980s contributed to the manifestation of pluralism in cultural processes and phenomena. But at the beginning of the XXI century. national culture is in crisis. The destruction of the socialist socio-political structure and a sharp change in value orientations, Russia's entry into market relations, the resulting class stratification and social inequality led Russian society and Russian culture to a systemic crisis, to the devaluation of education, spiritual values and culture in general, to the destruction of the material base and infrastructure of the cultural sphere, to the orientation of cultural institutions not to solve cultural problems proper, but to make a profit. The expansion of Western, primarily American, culture destroys the basis of national identity, forms a "market consumer" who is ready to be what is in demand. The reduction of scientific research, the destruction of cultural institutions in the countryside and in cities, scientific institutions, the fall in demand for highly artistic literature, music, films, the growth in the number of illiterate children - all these are signs of a crisis in national culture.

Overcoming the crisis of culture, realizing the potential of material and spiritual culture for the revival of the Fatherland is possible if there is a unified state policy aimed at the priority development of national culture.