Ancient Turkic Literature. National and regional literature: main components (on the example of the book "Sakhalin Island" by A.P.

The earliest monuments of Turkic literature are works written in Turkic runic writing. They are connected with the cultural life of several states: the Turkic Khaganate, which arose in the middle of the 6th century on the territory of Northern Mongolia and then, at the beginning of the 7th century, broke up into the Western Turkic and Eastern Turkic Khaganates; it was in the latter in the first third of the 8th century that the so-called Orkhon writings appeared - inscriptions on funerary steles, in which historical events are depicted in poetic form in the genre of historical-heroic poems that arose under the influence of the heroic epic. Another group of runic texts - Yenisei epitaphs - is associated with the military-political unification of the Yenisei Kyrgyz (according to Chinese sources - the Khyagas state, defined by some historians as an ancient Khakassian state). In terms of genre, this is an epitaph lyric, dating back no earlier than the 7th century and no later than the 11th-12th centuries. There is strong evidence that the ancient Turkic verses were called by the term yr / yyr, which means “song”, “poem”.

Ancient Uighur verses were called the word koshug- "poetry", "poem". This term in this and phonetically modified form has survived, especially in folklore, to the present day. Another original Turkic term is tagshut (takshut) - "verses". The term tagshut was used in pairs with the words "shlok" in the meaning of "verses", "poetry". In addition to the mentioned term, the term kyug / kyuk was used in the verses of the Manichaean content, which meant “verses”, “poem”, “song”, possibly “hymn”. It is assumed that the kyug had musical accompaniment. In the Manichaean texts, the term bashyk is also found - “hymn”, “song”. In verses of Buddhist content, the term padak (padaka) was used - a verse. This term is relatively rare, rather in the meaning of a poetic line. Also rare is the term kavy (kavya) in the meaning of "poem", "epos". However, it is believed that this term does not denote a genre, but, apparently, indicates a certain style of presentation.

New period in Turkic poetics

A new period in the development of Turkic-language literature and poetics begins after the formation in the 10th century on the territory of Eastern Turkestan, in the Semirechye and Southern Pretyanynanye, the Turkic state under the rule of the Karakhanid dynasty (927-1212), the adoption of Islam (a process that began among the Turkic peoples in the 10th century and dragged on for many centuries) and the conquest of the Turks of Central Asia, where literature in the Persian language was already flourishing at that time. Under the influence of Arabic and Persian literature, a new literary language, the Turki, was formed by borrowing a large number of words from Arabic and Persian, especially in poetry.

In the 11th century, during the heyday of the Karakhanid state, the first Turkic-language work appeared- a didactic poem written by the meter aruza (quantitative versification) mutakarib in the form of mesnevi (masnavi) with a large inclusion of rubai-type quatrains, the final three chapters are written as qasidas. Thus, the first work in the history of classical Turkic-language poetry included several genres of Arabic and Persian literature, which later received from the Turks independent development and separated into separate genres. Since that time, the creation of classical literature began, which reached its peak in Central Asia in the era of the Timurids, in Asia Minor in the Ottoman Empire, having passed a natural stage of formation in the Golden Horde state association and at the courts of the rulers of Asia Minor. This literature was created on two very close variants of the Turkic literary language: the Central Asian Turki (the Central Asian-Turkic literary language of the Middle Ages, or the Chagatai language, later called Old Uzbek) and the Asia Minor Turki (Ottoman or Old Turkish language), which, depending on the territory of distribution, had small Tatar , Turkmen and Azerbaijani dialect differences.

Classical Turkic-language poetry was created on the basis of Arabic-Persian poetics, which included a system of versification - aruz, the theory of rhyme and the theory of poetic figures. However, over time, a Turkic version of aruz developed, based not only on canonical rules, but also on the actual practice of adaptation Turkic language, which did not have a phonological distinction between long and short vowels, to the quantitative meters of Aruz. As a result, the ancient Turkic tonic-temporal versification, in which the rhythmic parts of multisyllabic lines were equalized by the time of their pronunciation, was replaced by a system of quantitative meters with a strictly regulated alternation of long (in borrowed Arabic and Persian words or conventionally long in Turkic words) and short syllables.

The genre system of classical Turkic-language literature was the same throughout the vast space from Central to Asia Minor and almost identical to those systems that existed in Arabic and Persian literature. It should be said that by the time of the heyday of Turkic-language literature in the middle of the 15th - the first third of the 16th century in Central Asia and the 16th century in Turkey, these genre forms, like the entire aruz, were not perceived as something alien, classic literature developed in these genre forms, which took into account the content (the theme of the work), the type of rhyme and the number of baits (a bait is a unit of a verse, it consists of two misra - half lines). The epic genre is mesnevi (masnavi), half-lines rhyme: aa, bb, cc, etc. in any arbitrary volume. All other genres are lyrical: ghazal, half-lines rhyme: aa, ba, ca, etc., a small number of bayts, the content is love-lyrical, often with Sufi overtones; qasida - rhyme as in a ghazal, but a much larger number of bayts, contains either madh - praise (panegyric qasida), or hajv - reproach (satirical qasida), there is also the so-called philosophical qasida; kyta, type of rhyme: ab, cb, db, etc., a small number of bayts, often two, which is reproduced in Europeanized editions as a quatrain: abcb, thematically rather freely; rubai, the type of rhyme is predominantly: aaba, rarely - aaaa (called rubaitarane), rubai is always written in meter x azaji, always contains only two bayts, is devoted mainly to love lyrics, but there may be other topics; fard, one bait, half lines or rhyme: aa or not: ab, the topics are very different - the beauty of the beloved, the experiences of love, the sorrows of separation, the meaning of life, descriptions of nature in connection with love experiences. Classical Turkic-language poetry created its own genre, which was not found in either Arabic or Persian literature. This is a tuyug, which contained only two bayts, rhymed like a rubay (aaba, aaaa) or like a kyta (abcb), but it was always written in ramal meter and in rhyming words a poetic figure was always used - tajnis (homonymous words). All of the listed types of rhymes form non-strophic forms of verse. Non-strophic forms also include such a complex structure as mustezad (mustazod); usually composed of one of the modifications of the khazaj meter, the type of rhyme as in a ghazal: aa, ba, ca, etc., but at the end of each half-line two more feet of the same meter were added with their own rhyme, also of the ghazal rhyme type: adad bead cgad and etc. Rubai and that south can be considered as stanzas as solid forms of verse.

Strophic forms are all types of musammat: murabba (half-lines rhyme: aaaa, aaab, cccb, dddb, etc.), muhammas (aaaaa, aaaab, ccccb, ddddb, etc.), musaddas (aaaaaa, aaaaab, cccccb, etc.), those. 4 half-lines, 5 half-lines, 6 half-lines are the most common forms, but there could be 7 half-lines - musabba, 8 half-lines - musamman, 9 half-lines - mutass a, 10 half-lines - muashshar. Such verses were written for famous ghazals, and additional half-lines were composed for each bait of the ghazal. The strophic form is tarjiband - a chain of ghazals united by a common refrain consisting of one bait, which is repeated after each ghazal, the refrain's bait was supposed to have an organic semantic connection with each ghazal. The first ghazal: aa, ba, ca and so on until the end, then the refrain follows: dd, then comes the second ghazal with its rhyme and after it the refrain: dd then the third ghazal and refrain. This form was used in works with Sufi themes. A variant of this form is the tarkibband, which was also a chain of ghazals, but each of them was followed by a new bayt. The first ghazal: aa, ba, ca, etc., then a new bait: dd, then the second ghazal with its own rhyme, after it another new bait: hers, and so on until the end of the work.

existed and used very popular so-called application forms. For example, lugz is a type of charade, which contained a description of the signs of an object, but it itself was not named. Muwashshah is a kind of acrostic, where some marked letters form either separate words or whole lines - both poetic and prose. Muamma is a riddle, contains hints not at the signs of the hidden character, but at the letters in his name. Many classical poets were fond of this form: Jami, Fuzuli, Navoi. Tarikh - some date was encrypted in poetic form. Munazire (munazora) was a qasida or other form, which contained a competition, a dispute between two rivals: a bow and an arrow, winter and summer, etc.

Since the 16th century, curly verses have become widespread.. For example, "square verses" - murabba. The poem fit into a square, and it could be read in any direction: from right to left, i.e. usually, but also from left to right and from top to bottom, the meaning did not change. Mudavvar - a poem enclosed in a circle, divided into segments, such poems could be read starting from any segment. Muakkad - a poem in the form of five and six-pointed stars. Mushadjar - verses in the form of a tree. There was a practice of writing poems in two languages, this form was called mulamma or shiru shakar (literally, milk and sugar), if poems were written in three languages, it was called shahdu shiru shakar (literally: honey, milk and sugar).

Poetics also provided for the rules for creating prose.- nasr, which could be of three types: nasr-i muradjaz - some meter was observed, but there was no rhyme, nasr-i musadja - rhymed prose, but without meter, nasr-i ari - free prose. Prose compositions were called name - “composition”, “book”, but this word also means “message”, “letter”, therefore it is sometimes included in the designation of poetic works, for example, sakiname (Bacchic poem). It must be said that in the practice of Chagatai poetry, the form of a work could be more important than its content. So, although the term mesnevi was used to refer to poems, i.e. epic genre, the author could write a lyrical poem and call it mesnevi based on the rhyme system used in it. Sometimes, on the contrary, it was the content that was the main thing. So, the marsiya genre is lamentation, lamentations for the deceased could be created in the form of a gazelle, qasida, mukhammas, musaddas, tarjiband and tarkibband.

In the Turkic-language writings on poetics "Mizan Alavzan" by Navoi (1441-1501) and in the "Treatise on Aruz" by Babur (1483-1530), a number of poetic forms are indicated that were inherent only in Turkic-language poetry. One of them - tuyug was a developed literary genre, others were on the verge between folklore and literature. This is the Turki, which was composed by one of the modifications of the Ramal meter; the koshuk was of two types: one was a variant of the meter madid, the other was a variant of the ramal; chinge was composed as a variant of the meter munsarikh; muhabbatname - one of the types of the hazaj meter; arzvari (arzuvari) was of two types: one was a variant of the khazaj meter, the other was a variant of the ramal. In Babur's treatise, the form of chinge is called oleng and another form is indicated that Navoi does not have - tarkhan and composed by the meter rajaz. Some of these forms are called songs by both authors. For example, arzvari, according to Navoi, is a song of the Iraqi Turkmen, and chinge (oleng) is a song that was performed at weddings. Some modern researchers believe that this form was common in the Middle Ages among the Turks, who spoke the Azeri dialect of the Oghuz Turks.

Aruz meters were also used in the works of ashugs(ashik - letters, lover, folk poet-musician) in Turkey. One of these forms, known in ashug poetry since the 16th century, was called a divan, it was composed as a variant of the meter ramal and sung to its own melody, it consisted of stanzas like the classical murabba form, sometimes with a refrain after each stanza. In the future, the system of rhymes could be in it, as in mukhammas and musaddas. Another poetic form of folk ashug poetry was semai, composed by the Khazaj meter and also performed to its own melody. There was also a yakla semai (an elongated semai) form that rhymed like a ghazal and followed the structure of the mustezad form of classical poetry. Other forms were composed: selis - a variant of the ramal meter (different from the sofa form), calendars - a variant of the hazaj meter, both forms had the rhyme of murabba, muhammas, musaddas and were popular until the 19th century. Ayakli calendars (long calendars) also looked like a classic mustezad, but was performed to a different melody. The shatranch form was composed by one of the variants of the meter rajaz, also performed to its own melody, rhymed like a murabba, only the first two bayts had a rhyme: abab.

In addition to poetic sizes adapted to the aruz meters, ashug poetry also had syllabic verses - hedzhe - with a two- and three-part line structure characteristic of Turkic poetry. These were predominantly 7-8-syllables and 11-syllables, although there are also lines of a larger volume, for example, 14-syllables. Ashug syllabic verses are called koshmatürkyu (Azerbaijani goshma, Turkmen, goshgy), the rhyme system is like in murabba, but the first stanza is either with rhyme, like in kyta (abcb), or with cross rhyme (abab), the second stanza: dddb, etc. . The koshma form has a refrain line: abcbd or ababd (first storf), eeebd (second stanza), gggbd (third stanza), etc. The number of lines in the refrain can be increased. Then, repeating in each stanza, additional lines are added that have their own rhyme: abcbdd, eeebdd, etc. A complicated form is formed by the zinjirleme koshma (koshma connected by a chain), where the first line of each new stanza begins by repeating the last word of the last line of the previous stanza. Thus, the syllib verses of ashug poetry are predominantly strophic forms, although in some verses the ghazal rhyme may also be used. Poems usually contain a small number of stanzas (3, rarely 10). The shortest form is bayati - mani, which is a 7-syllable rhyme like rubay (aaba), modern tradition perceived as a quatrain. This form is common not only in Turkey (in Eastern Anatolia), but also in Azerbaijan, it can be of very different content: love lyrics, comic (such as ditties) poems, fortune-telling, and even riddle verses). The form is known - jinasly mani, i.e. mani containing a play on words in rhyme. The form of alagozlu is a mani with 11 complex lines. Mani katar is a chain of mani, rhymes: aaba, ccdc, etc., i.e. there is each quatrain, as it were, separately, but all are connected by a theme. Singers who specialized exclusively in the performance of mani were called maniji. The form of ashug poetry guzelleme was dedicated to praising the beauty and virtues of the beloved, the poem was short. The tashlam form contained satire and social criticism, the kochaklam form was dedicated to a heroic theme, but compared to the destan, the description in such a poem was more figurative, designed for a great emotional effect. The agyt form contained lamentation, lamentation for the deceased, just like mercie. The form of muamm in the tradition of ashug poetry was folk riddles in verse. by the most long pieces ashug poetry had destans that could reach several tens of stanzas (rhyme koshmatyurkyu). The lengthy narratives told about some important military, political and social events. Plots could also be humorous, satirical and parodic. In addition to the ashushva poets, there were folk narrators of prose in Turkey - meddakhs. They told different stories in the hikaye genre (story, tale, story). The content of the hikaye was historical-heroic and adventurous-love stories about fictional or actually existing characters of past times or considered as such. This could include, for example, biographies of famous war heroes and famous storytellers. The prose narration could be interrupted by songs that were sung accompanied by saz, as well as poetic jokes by tekerleme. Short story inside the narration was called kyssa, or serkyushte, a separate episode of the narration - kol. There were also other, smaller terms for the structural features of the genre, indicative of the elaborate storytelling technique. Med dahi performed on holidays, at weddings, in coffee houses and were very popular. Meddakhs (in the Uzbek pronunciation madtsohi) also existed in Central Asia, but they mostly told about the life of saints.

Forms of syllabic verse were common among Azerbaijani ashugs(khedzha): keremi, kesikkeremi, gerayly, sharki, shikeste. Folklore songs of the Turkmens - aidim - were performed by aidimchi folk singers. Known for a humorous song love theme- varsaki (varsagi) and lale - a girl's song in the form of a quatrain. Turtlik form is very common in Uzbek folk poetry. These are 4 half lines (misra), which can be written as aruz (in rubai meter, i.e. different types khazaja) and syllabic verses (barmak). The rhyme is the most diverse: abab, aaba, abba, aaaa, abcb. The themes of these quatrains are love lyrics, satire, accusatory and comic motifs. Humorous verses were performed by kazykchi singers. Since ancient times, the wedding song yor-yor (yor - beloved) has been known, which as "chinge" is mentioned in the essay about Navoi's aruz, in a similar treatise of Babur it is called "oleng". Song from musical accompaniment called a kusik. One of the popular genres of Uzbek folklore, which got into the written tradition from there, is alla - a lullaby. The performance of songs by aitishuv (lapar) is widespread among the people - a type of choral singing, when boys and girls alternately sing verses in the form of ditties. In the Central Asian folklore tradition, dastans (the Central Asian tradition of pronunciation) were included in the repertoire of storytelling poets: bakhshi (Uzbek), bagshi (Turkmen), baksy (Karakalpak). Those storytellers who specialized in performing only dastans were called dastanchi. Central Asian, as well as Kazakh dastans were prose interspersed with poetic inserts written in the form of koshma (goshgy among the Turkmens). Sometimes the poetic part almost exceeded the prose. Dastans were heroic, heroic-romantic, romantic (adventurous-love), fairy-tale-fantastic (processings of Arabic and Persian fairy-tale epic) in content. The dastans included stories from both folklore and written literature, for example, from the works of Nizami, Navoi, etc.

Among the Turks, the genre of playful ditties was very popular., which has similar names among different peoples: takmak (among the Tatars), takpak (among the Karakalpaks), takhpakh (among the Khakasses). These are equally syllable or relatively equally syllable quatrains with different systems of rhymes, with the exception of the Khakass takhpakh. The sound organization of the Khakass takhpakh - the alliterative system - demonstrates the consistent principle of alliteration in the anaphora, and the quatrains are often combined into octets. Poetic jokes in Tatar folklore were called - samak, in Bashkir - hamak and takmaza. The term Baitu Tatars was used to describe historical songs and poems with sad, even tragic content. Bayit in Bashkir folklore is a poetic narrative that allowed the improvisation of the narrator. The epic tales of the Bashkirs - yyr - were performed by narrators-improvisers, who were called sesen.

The narrator-improviser in the Kazakh and Kyrgyz folklore traditions - akyn - performs various works to the accompaniment of dombra or kobza. The performers of only heroic epics - fat or jir - are called jirau and jirchi. From the point of view of rhythm, the epics are a 7-8-syllable of equally syllable and relatively equally syllable verse with inconsistently drawn rhymes. The initial alliteration is rich, which serves as an additional means of rhythmic organization of the verse and its decoration. Alliteration in anaphora and rhyme (often rhymes) organize irregular strophic periods. Akyns, jirau and jirchi periodically participated in aitys (Kyrgyz aitysh) - competitions of storytellers (aitygs) to maintain their authority. If the jirchi in the Kyrgyz folklore tradition specialized in the performance of only one epic work, for example, the epic "Manas" (recorded in the 19th century), it was called manaschi, the epic "Semetey" - semeteychi. Narratives in epic works changed all the time: from smooth descriptions of fat (jira) to an accelerated rhythm of zheldirme (in images of a horse running, racing, etc.) by shortening poetic lines.

The term tolgau in Kazakh literature refers to works of a didactic nature.. Tolgau can be anonymous, author's in the oral tradition and literary. Their content is all sorts of teachings, instructions, reasoning on various occasions. The genre continues the tradition of didactic literature widespread in the Near and Middle East. The form of zhoktau in Kazakh folklore is a ritual, funeral song. The term oleng (song, verse) refers to 11 complex quatrains with a rubay-type rhyme of lyrical content. Aitysu is a competition in the performance of songs, when the songs are sung in turn, as if in the form of a dialogue.

A special group is formed by the literature and folklore of the Turkic peoples inhabiting Southern and Eastern Siberia., - peoples whose culture developed outside Muslim world and close contacts with Islamized peoples. In their folklore and literature, the original Turkic rhythmic and sound organization of verse continued to exist and develop, similar to that which existed in ancient Turkic literature. The Khakassian heroic epic alyptyg (alyptyg) nymakh is composed of unequal (6-12 syllables) lines, in the regulation of which there are both metric and percussion principles. The rhythm of such a verse is closely related to the distribution of musical rhythm and the characteristics of guttural singing - hai. Executor epic tales called haiji (haichi) nymakhchi. The recitative high, characteristic of the epic, was also used in the performance of improvisational songs - takhpakhs, which can also be performed with a melodic high. The performer of tahpahs is called hajjitahpahchi. In the process of performing a work, haiji subordinates uneven lines to a rhythmically stable melody, equalizing them by introducing additional vowels - individual syllables and words without a specific meaning (asemantic), stretching the final (stressed) syllables, as well as by reducing vowels, shortening syllables. The sound organization of this verse is represented by alliteration in anaphora, and from 2 to 1213 lines can be combined with it. Interword alliteration is less pronounced. Alyptykh nymakh - strophic works. Haiji performs the work in complete semantic segments, including 29 or more lines, which can be connected by initial alliteration. Since this is an improvisational genre, there is no solid pattern here, much depends on the skill of the haiji. In some places of the text you can see rhyme, but these are more likely rhymes - the coincidence of sounds in the same grammatical forms. According to the content of alypt nymakh - heroic, genealogical and mythological poems. The lyrical genre was developed in the form of tahpakh, which, according to the content, was either a quatrain (comic ditties) or an octet (love lyrics and other topics), but here there could be deviations from the rules, since this genre is also improvisational. There were also genres algys - bless wish and haargys - curse.

Exactly the same in content are the epics of the Altai, Tuvan and Yakut peoples , the performance of which is also accompanied by guttural singing. The Altai heroic epic - kai cherchek - is performed by the narrator kaichi, who correlates poetic and musical rhythms. In terms of poetry, kai cherchek are relatively equally syllable poems with a small gap in the number of syllables in the lines: from 78 to 1213 syllables. Inter-linear alliteration covers 28 lines, rhymes are clearly expressed and frequent. The term kozhong (kozhon) in the Altai folklore denotes historical, everyday and lyrical songs, they are performed by the zhongchi singer in an ordinary voice. These are predominantly quatrains (sometimes the number of lines is increased to 6) with 7-8 complex lines (sometimes 4 and 10 syllables appear) with inter-line alliteration that can cover all four lines. In Altai folklore, the form algysh syos is also known - well-wishes. The Yakut heroic epos - olonkho, performed by the storyteller - olonkhosut - is a combination of prose and poetic parts. The latter are performed by recitation and singing. The declamatory part (recitative) consists of descriptions and those episodes that are presented on behalf of the narrator. The song part is the monologues of all the characters, different in volume: some in 34 dozen lines of poetry, others in 200, 300, sometimes up to 400 lines. The lines are polysyllabic, the number of syllables ranges from 4 to 14, the rhythm of the verse is controlled musical rhythm and guttural singing - khabarga yryata. There is no rhyme, in some places rhymes are visible in the coincidences of grammatical forms. The initial alliteration covers a small number of lines (2-3 lines), sometimes used through the line. Other genres: yrya - song, may have different content, khohoon - verse, poem, song, yrya-khokhoon - song-verse, algys - good wishes, kyryys - curse. The performer of songs is called yryakhyt.

Literary monuments are important element in the culture of any civilized people. Literature reflects not only a certain historical situation, but also the public consciousness and mood characteristic of this period. In addition, literature reproduces the very portrait of the people. Literature that expresses the spirit of the people is called "folk". However, literary studies often identify folk literature with national literature. But this different concepts: the first can be attributed to the work of writers of different nationalities, who cover the topics of folk life, raise the problems of the people (which are multinational). National Literature is the literature of a certain nation, where the folk theme is also touched upon, but with an emphasis on the peculiarities of the mentality.

There is also another literary gradation. The territory of any state consists of several regions that differ from each other in relief, climate, way of life, social environment and others. Works created in one locality and reflecting its uniqueness belong to regional literature.

Works on the study of national and regional literature in domestic science appeared relatively recently (in the last quarter XX century). At the same time, the regional aspect has been studied less theoretically than the national one. However, in the work of many writers, these aspects are found, consciously or not, included in the works. The term "national literature" is broader than regional literature. following the works literary scholars(identifying "folk" and "national" literature), we define the main features of this concept.

The main component of national literature is the reflection in it of the peculiarities of the mentality of any ethnic group. Psychological picture nations, moral norms, connection with nature - all this, one way or another, is present in the works about the people as a whole.

The historical component is also important. In the literature of any country, one can trace the attitude of society to its past directly through works of art, in particular, using literary texts as an example.

Russian national literature has always been distinguished by humanity, philanthropy, the victory of good over evil. Works about the people are often built on Orthodox canons. Events most often occur against the backdrop of a specific historical situation. The characters' characters are endowed with both negative (laziness, slowness) and positive (responsiveness, generosity) traits inherent in the Russian mentality.

National literature includes regional literature. There are several opinions about the last term. For example, A.N. Vlasov includes in the regional literature works "created by local authors and in demand by local readers" . IN"Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts" (2001), regional literature is understood as a collection of "works of writers, focusing their attention on the image of a certain area (usually rural) and the people inhabiting it" .

In addition, literary critics offer synonymous concepts for the term "regional literature". So, in "Literary encyclopedic dictionary" (1987) fixed the concept of " local flavor" (from the French. couleur locale ) as "reproduction in fiction of the features of national life, landscape, language, characteristic of a strictly defined locality or region" . In the same edition, a reference is made to the everyday-descriptive trend of costumbrism (from Spanish. ostumbrismo, costumbre - temper, custom), which captures "the desire for the most accurate descriptions of nature, features national life, often - with the idealization of patriarchal mores and customs ". Verism (from Italian. vero - truthful). Verists, in describing the life of poor social strata, as is known, widely used the folk language and its dialectal manifestations, which was a necessary means of illustrating the naturalistic proximity of the phenomena and events described to the realities of true human nature not embellished by artistic means. In addition, there are the concepts of "regionalism", "veritism", "zonal literature", etc.

Despite the obvious differences, these definitions form a synonymous series of regional literature, where common feature- geographic and social description any locality.

The embodiment of the national and regional aspect can be traced on the example of the book by A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) "Sakhalin Island" (1895). Known not only in Russia, but also abroad, this work opened to the world the Russian soul, compassionate and sympathetic. Compassion, the ability to see the pain of another - Russian national traits. In "Sakhalin Island" these qualities are shown through the feelings of the author. From the first impressions of the writer about the island and further throughout the work, one can catch the experiences of A.P. Chekhov about hard labor, free settlers, about the island as part of Russia, as well as about Russia itself.

The book "Sakhalin Island" reflected, first of all, the hard life of convicts and settlers, who "feel the absence of something important" . The convicts "do not have enough of the past, traditions", they "have no customs", "and most importantly, there is no homeland". This mood is promoted climatic conditions(“Good weather is very rare here”), relief features (“the coast is completely sheer, with dark gorges and coal seams ... a gloomy coast!”). Almost everyone who arrives on Sakhalin is guided by the phrase: "It's better in Russia". This comparison creates an even greater gap between the mainland and the island, separating Sakhalin from Russia.

In Chekhov's book, there is often a hidden opposition "Russian - non-Russian", a kind of antithesis "Russia - Sakhalin". This artistic technique is stated on the first pages of the work during a visit to A.P. Chekhov Nikolaevsk. Due to the lack of an inn in the city, the writer dined in the assembly, where he became an unwitting witness to the conversations of the visitors who were there. “If you listen carefully and for a long time,” A.P. concludes. Chekhov, - then, my God, how far life here is from Russia!<…>in everything one feels something of one's own, not Russian <…>not to mention the original not Russian nature, it always seemed to me that the warehouse of our Russian life is completely alien to the native Amur people<…>and we, visitors from Russia, seem foreigners"even" morality here is somehow special, not ours"(Italics ours. - T. P.) A.P. Chekhov, like other residents central Russia, does not associate the island with the mainland as part of Russian state. For him, Sakhalin is an unknown, other land.

A.P. Chekhov often uses the combinations “on our Russian arshin”, “in our Russian villages”, “Russian field”, “Russian tsar”, etc., drawing a parallel between Russia And non-Russia, large and small land.

However, on the island, the writer also sees something that makes him related to the Russian state - faith, thanks to which people do not allow themselves to sink, overcome inhuman torments, and, having overcome them, begin to live again. Churches have been built for believers on Sakhalin. and A.P. Chekhov often mentions them: “There are several houses and a church on the shore”; "six versts from Douai<…>little by little a residence began to grow in the neighborhood: premises for officials and offices, a church<…>» ; “the main essence of the fast is its official part: the church, the house of the head of the island, his office”; "gray wooden church"; “the church is whitening, of old, simple and therefore beautiful architecture”, etc. As can be seen from the examples, the description of any settlement, post of A.P. Chekhov often begins with an indication of the presence or absence of a church, which indicates the importance of faith in the spiritual life of people. It should be noted that representatives of various confessions and religions lived on Sakhalin (the island was and remains multinational), which, however, peacefully coexisted with each other. Here is how A.P. writes about it. Chekhov: “Catholics complained to me that the priest comes very rarely, the children remain unbaptized for a long time, and many parents, so that the child does not die without baptism, turn to Orthodox priest <…>When a Catholic dies, then, in the absence of his own, they invite a Russian priest to sing "Holy God".

Having touched on the religious theme, one cannot fail to mention such a feature of Sakhalin as its multinationality (which is the reason for the large number of religions on the island). The rich ethnic composition of Sakhalin is due to the fact that people were sentenced to exile regardless of nationality. “Local residents,” A.P. Chekhov one of the villages - this is a disorderly rabble Russians, Poles, Finnish, Georgians <…>» . On the one hand, such a mixture did not interfere with maintaining human relations, but, on the contrary, contributed to the assimilation of cultures; on the other hand, people did not seek to settle in this land, since for everyone it was a stranger, a temporary place of residence, as people believed in it. "Local villager do not yet constitute societies. There are still no adult natives of Sakhalin, for whom the island would be home, there are very few old-timers, the majority are newcomers; the population changes every year; some arrive, others leave; and in many villages, as I have already said, the inhabitants give the impression not of a rural society, but of an accidental rabble. They call themselves brothers because they suffered together, but they still have little in common and they are strangers to each other. They do not believe in the same way and speak different languages. The old people despise this diversity and laughingly say that what kind of society can there be if Russians, crests, Tatars, Poles, Jews, Chukhons, Kirghiz, Georgians, Gypsies live in the same village? ... ".

On Sakhalin, which was seen by A.P. Chekhov, there was no definite way of life, each of the settlers and convicts lived in their own way. An example of this is the description of A.P. Chekhov of Sakhalin life: “On Sakhalin, there are all kinds of huts, depending on who built it - a Siberian, a crest or a Chukhonets, but most often it is a small log house<…>without any external decorations, thatched<…>There is usually no yard. Not a single tree near.<…>If there are dogs, then they are lethargic, not evil.<…>And for some reason these quiet, harmless dogs are on a leash. If there is a pig, then with a block around his neck. The rooster is also tied by the leg.

Why do you have a dog and a rooster tied? - I ask the owner.

We have everything on the chain in Sakhalin, - he jokes in response. “The earth is like that.”

“Such” means different, different, alien. The reluctance of people to recognize the island as part of Russia is explained by its purpose. Sakhalin as a place of exile at the turn XIX - XX For centuries, it has evoked negative emotions, fear, and terror in Russians. Heavy impressions contributed to a similar perception by the writer of the Sakhalin nature. “From the high bank,” writes A.P. Chekhov, - stunted, diseased trees looked down; here in the open, each of them alone wages a cruel struggle against frosts and cold winds, and each has to swing restlessly from side to side, bend to the ground, plaintively creak - and no one hears these complaints". Just as natural complaints go unanswered, so do the groans of people punished by law and surrounding reality, do not reach the high authorities. But Chekhov's Sakhalin people, like trees, defend their right to life, and sometimes to existence. The entire “Sakhalin Island” is permeated with such a depressing mood, because A.P. Sakhalin felt this way. Chekhov.

Thus, in the travel notes of A.P. Chekhov "Sakhalin Island" can be conditionally distinguished "big"(Russia) and "small"(Sakhalin) worlds, "central" and "regional" concepts, which are embodied in the following features:

1) features of the Russian mentality. The first impressions of a different, “non-Russian” life from Nikolaevsk change with A.P. Chekhov as they learn about the real situation on Sakhalin. A.P. Chekhov sees thieves, murderers, morally and physically degraded people. But, at the same time, a convict believer, tolerant, loving Russia opens up to him. The writer sees on the island a kind of model of the Russian state, where important role the church plays and where representatives of different ethnic groups. This manifests such features of a Russian person as catholicity and tolerance;

2) historical authenticity. A.P. Chekhov recorded in writing the history of hard labor in its most active period. The book made a revolution in the public mind, as it was created by an eyewitness of those events;

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"UDMURT STATE UNIVERSITY"

FACULTY OF UDMURT PHILOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF UDMURT LITERATURE AND LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLES OF RUSSIA

ENTRY PROGRAM

for direction 032700 – Philology

Master of Philology
Literature of the peoples of Russia in a comparative typological study

Program compilers

d. philol. n. T. I. Zaitseva

k. philol. V. L. Shibanov

Izhevsk 2013

Rules for the entrance test
The entrance test to the master's program "Literature of the peoples of Russia in a comparative typological study" in the direction 032700 - Philology is conducted in the form of an interview.

The interview is conducted in order to identify the readiness of the graduate for further education in the magistracy. During the interview, the future undergraduate's knowledge of theoretical and practical material on Udmurt literature and the literatures of the peoples of Russia is assessed. Particular attention is drawn to the orientation of the student in the literary process of the Ural-Volga region, the consistency of the presentation of the material, knowledge of literary texts.

Persons who have submitted documents in admission committee UdSU on time and in accordance with the rules of admission. The interview is conducted orally - discussion of topics and sections, answers to questions in accordance with the presented program.

An applicant's knowledge is evaluated on a 100-point scale.

Program
1. Methodological foundations and methodological principles for studying the literature of the peoples of Russia.

“The Concept of Education in Russian Literature for Schools with Native (Non-Russian) and Russian (Non-Native) Teaching Languages ​​in a Twelve-Year School” (supervisor M.V. Cherkezova). Theory and methods of studying the literature of the peoples of Russia at the university and at school (R.Z. Khairullin, L.I. Klimovich, M.P. Sharapova, A. Shklyaev, etc.). Reflection of the problem of researching national literatures and creativity of national writers in educational and methodological, scientific and critical literature (K. Zelinsky, G. Lomidze, V. Shoshin, Ch. Huseynov, R. Bikmukhametov, P. Borozdina, Yu. Lotman, G. Gachev and etc.). The history of the study of the literatures of the peoples of the USSR in domestic and foreign literary criticism. Five components of modern literary education: native literature, Russian literature, literature of the near abroad (literature of the peoples of the USSR), foreign literature and literature of the peoples of Russia. Difficulties in studying the course "Literature of the peoples of Russia". The program compiled by R. Bikmukhametov, its new version. The problem of searching for a unified approach to solving the issue of the content and structure of the course, recommendations for a multivariate study of the subject. New programs built on the regional principle.

2. Literature of the peoples of Russia as an ideological and aesthetic community

Historical and literary, comparative, typological, systemic, theological and other principles and methods of studying national literatures.

Features and signs of a literary community (R. Bikmukhametov): socio-political, state, cultural unity; community of historical destinies of peoples; sustainable relationships and mutual influences; the presence of a developed intermediary language. The role of the Russian language in uniting the literatures of the peoples of Russia into an ideological and aesthetic community.

Concepts of literature, regional association, world literary process. The presence of a subsystem and inclusion in a system of a higher order: native literature - literature of the peoples of Russia - world literature.

Classification of literatures, typology of multinational phenomena, dynamics of regional movement, ethnolinguistic factors (bilingualism, multilingualism), characteristics of regions, communities. The emergence of regional communities on a different basis, their differentiation. Linguistic community (East Slavic, Persian-speaking, Turkic-speaking, Mongolian-speaking, Iberian-Caucasian, etc.). Cultural, geographical, religious and other proximity. Two main types of regional communities - regional-geographical and regional-linguistic:

a) - literature of the Volga and Ural regions;

- Literature of Dagestan and North Caucasus;

- Literature of Altai and Siberia;

- Literature of the peoples of the North and the Far East;

b) - Turkic literature (Altai, Balkar, Bashkir, Kumyk, Nogai, Tatar, Tuvan, Khakass, Chuvash, Yakut);

- Finno-Ugric literatures (Karelian, Komi-Permyak, Komi-Zyryan, Mari, Mordovian, Udmurt, Mansi, Khanty);

- Mongolian literature (Buryat, Kalmyk);

- Abkhaz-Adyghe literature (Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardian, Circassian, etc.);

A special position in this process of some other literatures (for example, the Jewish literature of Russia is created in Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian).

The organic entry of the history of Russian literature into the history of literature of pre-revolutionary Russia and the Soviet Union.
3. Comparative studies as a basis for the comparative study of national literatures in the context of world literature.

Comparative historical literary criticism as one of the sections of the history of literature. Typological and genetic essence of literary phenomena, literary connections and influences (contact connections).

Problems of interliterary syntheses and generalities. Factors determining the proximity, commonality, kinship of literatures (territorial proximity, common historical and cultural development of peoples, ethnolinguistic kinship, etc.). Classification of literatures. The concept of "world literature". Correlation of systems: "world literature" - "regional literatures" - "zonal communities of literatures" - "national literatures".

Finno-Ugric Literature in the System of World Literature. Classification of the Ural literatures by Peter Domokosh. Similarities and differences between the Finno-Ugric literatures of Russia (Komi, Komi-Permyak, Udmurt, Mari, Mordovian, Karelian, Mansi, etc.). Periodization by Peter Domokosh.

Significance of the 1960 Debate. Leading researchers and their works (N.I. Konrad, V.V. Zhirmunsky, I.G. Neupokoeva, G.M. Fridlender, G. Gachev, A. Dima, D. Dyurishin; A. Wilmen, J.-J. Ampère, F. Shall and others).
4. Folklore – the oldest form of verbal art , verbal and aesthetic cultures of the peoples of Russia.

Folklore way of cognition and reflection of reality. Myths of the peoples of Russia, mythological prehistory of folklore, epic tales, various epic stages (for example, epic of the archaic, heroic type).

The heroic epic is a special artistic work of oral folk art. General and special features of the epic of the peoples of Russia: "Olonkho" (Yakut.), "Geser" (Buryat.), "Dzhangar" (Kalm.), "Narts" (Northern Caucasus), "Kisekbash-Kitaby" (Tat .), "Kalevala" (Karelian-Finnish), etc. Collectors and researchers of folklore monuments.

Folklore is one of the sources of the formation of national literatures.

Translations of epic works of different peoples of Russia. Modern processes of preparing texts for publication. Artistic works based on the epic.
5. Literature of the peoples of the Volga and Urals as a historical and literary community, the specifics of the development of the Finno-Ugric and Turkic-speaking literatures of the region.

Periodization of the development of national literatures. Multinational interconnectedness.

The specificity of the development of the Finno-Ugric and Turkic-language literatures of the Volga-Ural region. Factors determining the kinship, commonality, closeness of the literatures of the region. Multinational interconnectedness is a constant factor in the formation, formation, and development of the literatures of the region. Geographic distribution of ethnoculture, commonality of processes.

The history of the study of the Volga-Ural literatures in a comparative typological aspect (N.I. Cherapkin, R.G. Bikmukhametov, Peter Domokosh, V.M. Makushkin, K.K. Vasin, F.K. Ermakov, G.V. Belyaev , V. M. Vanyushev, M. F. Pakhomova, G. N. Sandakov, A. A. Vasinkin, T. I. Zaitseva, S. T. Arekeeva, R. Z. Khairullin, M. S. Magdeev , G.M. Khalitov, H.Yu. Minnegulov and others). Western and Eastern traditions in the development of the literature of the region, literary translations.

The role and significance of Russian literature in the literary life of the region.

The specificity of the development of the Kalmyk and German literatures in the context of the national literatures of this community.

“Literature of the peoples of the Volga and Ural regions” is an integral part of the course “Literature of the peoples of Russia”.
6. Features of the development of the Finno-Ugric literatures of the Volga-Ural region O on

Missionary work, enlightenment, bilingualism, development of modern literature, literature of the Soviet period, 1990s. XX century..

Classification and periodization of the Ural literatures by Peter Domokosh. Pre-October origins of the formation of Finno-Ugric literatures: main events, leading writers, literary and social and educational activities (Stefan Permsky, I. Kuratov, K. Zhakov, G. Vereshchagin, I. Mikheev, I. Yakovlev, S. Nurminsky, V. Lukyanov, P. Ruslanov, M. Evseviev, M. Gerasimov and others). The first printed editions, the folklore basis of literary texts, genre originality.

The role of Russian humanistic culture, creative relationships.

The tragic path of prominent Finno-Ugric writers of the 1920-40s, their role in the formation of the characteristic features of national literature (Kuzebai Gerd, Ashalchi Oki, Kedra Mitrei, V. Savin, V. Chistalev, V. Lytkin, S. Chavain, M Shketan, Y. Yalkayn, A. Zubov, M. Likhachev, Z. Dorofeev, F. Chesnokov, D. Morskoy and others). The problem of progress and regress in literary evolution.

Literature of the thaw period. Change of literary paradigms. The use of democratic forms of construction of works of art. Lyrical direction in the development of the literature of the region. Attention to the individual, the search for new expressive means of psychologization of literature. Creativity of the Sixties (G. Krasilnikov, R. Valishin, F. Vasiliev, N. Rybakov, V. Ivanov, M. Kazakov, V. Kolumb, K. Abramov, I. Devin, N. Erkai, G. Yushkov , I. Toropov, N. Kuratova and others).

Literature 1970-80s Production romance, gains and losses. A contradictory combination of centralization, unification of literature with ethno-literary processes. Genre specificity of works and moral quest a hero who asserts himself in work. The concept of man in the literature of these years and the unity of the main type of hero. The problem of "small" motherland. The influence of discussions about realism (1957, 1959), the concept of "national in form, socialist in content" (1957), on the interaction of literatures (1960), etc. on the literary-artistic and literary-critical process region. The clash of the normative approach with the artistic and creative one. Crisis of large prose forms. Poetry as the guardian of the original artistic word (L. Kutyanova, T. Chernova, G. Romanova, A. Ivanova, V. Izilyanov, V. Mishanina and others).

The aggravated sociality of small genres of prose, the study of complex relationships between life processes and spiritual world of the individual. Features of creativity of Russian writers of the region, dialogue of literatures.

Literature of the 1990s New trends in criticism and literary criticism. Artistic and critical pluralism. New names in the literary process. Activation of connections between the Finno-Ugric literatures of Russia and the Finno-Ugric literatures of foreign countries.

Understanding by Finno-Ugric literatures contradictory traits civilizations of the 20th century own history peoples, spiritual, moral, ideological evolution of a person as a representative of small ethnic groups.

7. Turkic Literature of the Volga-Ural Region - ancient and medieval periods, modern times. Spiritual-religious and secular trends, connection with the literatures of Central Asia and Transcaucasia

Ancient and medieval periods, modern times, literature of the twentieth century. Characteristic features of ancient literature (cosmology, universality of moral principles, chanting of personality, interest in ethnos, ethnic language). Ancient international languages.

The origins of Tatar literature in the culture of the ancient Bulgars. The Great Bulgar State (X-XIII centuries) is a link between Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Literary monuments of the XIII-XIV centuries, their belonging to several literatures. Kul Gali (1189–1236/1240) is the founder of the Bulgaro-Tatar poetry. "The Tale of Yusuf" is a masterpiece of world culture. Kul Gali is a contemporary of Nizami, Rustaveli, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Upholding humanism, high human values. The Volga Turks and the Golden Horde (“Khusrov and Shirin” by Kutba, “The Book of Love” by Khorezmi; Seif Sarai is the approver of various poetic genres). Nazire reception, the legend of Yusuf and Zuleikha.

Kazan Khanate and its Literature. The work of Mukhamedyar (XVI century), the poems "Gift of Husbands" (1539) and "Light of Hearts" (1542), "Dastan Babakhan" by Sayadi.

Literature of the 17th–18th centuries - the strengthening of secular poetry (odes) and the development of religious and mystical literature (connection with Sufism, Mavlya Kuly). Humanistic direction - G. Kandaly (1797-1860).

Missionary work in Kazan, the activities of theological seminaries, the creation of written monuments among neighboring ethnic groups. The value of Russian humanistic culture.

Salavat Yulaev (1752-1800) - Bashkir poet, associate of Pugachev ("Native Country", "Battle", "Young Warrior", etc.)

Enlightenment movement, the development of progressive culture and literature. K. Nasyri (1825-1902) - the creator of the Tatar literary language, propagandist of Russian culture. "The Tale of Avicene", "The Tale of the Viziers". "Khisametdin Menda" by M. Anjigitov and "Thousands, or the Beauty Khadicha" (1887), "Great Sins" by Z. Bigiev (1870–1902) are the first novels in Tatar literature. "The Unfortunate Girl" (1887) by G. Ilyasi is the first Tatar drama. Galiaskar Kamal (1879–1933) is a famous Tatar playwright.

Enlightenment ideas in the work of Bashkir writers. Features of the development of pre-October Bashkir literature. Mazhit Gafuri (1880–1934) is a classic of Bashkir and Tatar literature. Bashkir Sufi poets, "History of Bulgaria" by T. Yalsygulov (1767–1838). The development of poetry - didactic poems and love lyrics by Akmulla (1831-1895), Mukhametsalim Umitbaev (1841-1907).

New Chuvash literature, vigorous activity writers-educators I. Yakovlev (1848–1930), M. Fedorov (1848–1904).

The founders of realistic traditions are symbols of national literary renewal: G. Tukay (1886–1913, Tat.), K. Ivanov (1890–1915, Chuv.), S. Kudash (b. 1894). Human concept, structure, poetics. “On Freedom”, “To the People”, “Book”, “Hay Bazaar or New Kisekbash” by G. Tukay; "Narspi" by K. Ivanov. The origins that determine the originality of literature. Eastern classics and Russian literature are the key to the new time, an example of highly artistic, deeply meaningful art of the word.

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1 LITERATURE AND FOLKLORE OF THE ANCIENT TURKISH CENTRAL ASIA Anikeeva Tatyana Alexandrovna Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Researcher Department of the History of the East, Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences oral folklore, as a rule, epic, which, through language and content, reflects both historical realities and a complex of mythological beliefs. Various tribes that lived in antiquity and early Middle Ages in the vast expanses of Central and Central Asia, then they formed into large, strong tribal associations, then again disintegrated. Therefore, the literary monuments of this time can be considered as a common heritage Turkic-speaking peoples . Some researchers attribute the origin of the literary process among the Turks to the 8th century. (the earliest by the middle of the 6th century, that is, the time of the existence of the Turkic Khaganate, the middle of the 6th - the middle of the 8th century). The concept of "ancient Turkic literature" is largely literary criticism, since it not only shows the connection with the cultural life of the Turkic state, but also indicates the time of formation and consolidation of certain historical, cultural and stylistic phenomena, which later received their development and significance for this particular literature. One of the main problems in the study of the ancient and medieval Turkic literary tradition is the degree of correlation between oral and book elements in it. The interaction between folklore text and literature is a constant process and shows several ways of mutual transition. So, often the folklore tradition begins to mimic in a certain way, to adapt to literature. This happens at the phonetic, compositional, and genre levels. For example, individual songs of the oral Kalmyk "Dzhangar", which are performed as part of the epic cycle, are called "chapter" (buleg), a word from the arsenal of book literature; in Kalmykia, Western Mongolia, Xinjiang, the South Altai Oirats have proverbs and beliefs about the existence of a multi-volume book "Jangar", "never confirmed by anything, but reflecting the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe" ideal text ", necessarily written and standing hierarchically higher than the oral tradition" . By the beginning of the 7th century The Turkic Khaganate broke up into two independent associations: Eastern Turkic and Western Turkic (the process of disintegration went from 583 to 602) Khaganates. The first works of ancient Turkic literature, which are considered to be runic monuments, appeared in the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. There are two main groups of sites: Orkhon texts (in northern Mongolia in the basins of the Orkhon, Selenga and Tola rivers) and Yenisei texts (discovered in the Yenisei valley). The Orkhon group of texts consists of the Small and Large inscriptions in honor of Kul-tegin, the inscriptions in honor of Bilge-kagan, in honor of Tonyukuk, as well as the Ongin inscription. A number of smaller inscriptions on tombstones belong to the Yenisei group of texts. The texts of the monuments contain appeals and appeals to the rulers (beks) and the people to promote the rise of the Turkic kagans. The authors of the Orkhon works depict the images of the supreme ruler of the kagan, the "wise adviser" Tonyukuk and the commander-hero Kul-tegin as examples of virtue corresponding to the times. The image of the kagan includes the divine principle ("heavenly, unborn", "my mother is a khatun, like [the goddess] Umai") ​​and at the same time is endowed with the best human features. The Yenisei runic inscriptions provide samples of the Turkic-language epitaph lyrics written on behalf of the deceased. The most extensive of them, such as the inscription from Begre, Altynkel and Elegest, are built in the form of a biographical narrative, telling about some of the main events in the life of the buried. This highlights their resemblance to certain parts Orkhon inscriptions, however, in the Yenisei epitaphs, the life story of the deceased plays a secondary role and is subordinated to main goal convey the regret of the deceased about those whom he "did not enjoy" and from whom he "separated" (that is, died), a formula that is necessarily present in all Yenisei epitaphs. The intonation of the Yenisei epitaphs is filled with deep sorrow: "With you, in the tower, my wives, woe! with you, my own

2 sons, I'm separated!.." "I stopped feeling the sun and the moon in the blue sky! From my land, woe! I separated from you! My khan, my el (tribal union), woe! I didn't enjoy it! From my ale, woe! I separated" (Inscription from Elegest). The runic texts contain repetitions that stand out as the same type of components of descriptions: the image of the history of the people "Kek Türk" (that is, the Türks-Tugyu) from the 6th to the 8th centuries, the main motives of the description: the need to follow the precepts ancestors, the need for military campaigns, a favorable outcome of campaigns, the image of various kagans Motifs: the help of the gods in the election of the kagan (or the divine origin of the kagan himself), his military successes, his concern for the well-being of the entire Turkic people military campaigns involving Tonyukuk.There is an opinion that the texts of the inscriptions in honor of Kul-tegin and Bilge-kagan may be a literary processing of oral legends that develop around epic heroes: the presence and certain repetition of stylistic formulas and clichés can serve as proof of this in the texts of the monuments, characteristic of the heroic epos.For example, 1. the formula describing the welfare of the people: I made the poor (poor) people rich I made the small people numerous chygan budunyg bai kyltym, az budunyg ukush kyltym (Small inscription in honor of Kul-Tegin) Poor He made the (poor) people rich The small ones he made numerous (Bilge-kagan about Kagan Kapagan, his uncle) 2. military activity (also the same stylistic formulas): They forced those who had heads to bow (heads) Those who had knees they forced to bend (kneel) Bashlylyg jukunturmis, tizligig sokurmis (The first story of the Great Inscription in honor of Kul-tegin, also in the third story about Ilterishkagan, the father of Bilge-kagan, in the same inscription). Compare with the following: Those who had a state, he deprived the state Those who had a kagan, he deprived the kagan (also repeated several times in the inscription) like fire (and) rain (storm) We fought at Bolchu (Inscription in honor of Bilge-Kagan) On the second day they came, Flaming like fire, they came. We fought Akinti kün kalti, ortca qyzyp kalti (39 40, Inscription in honor of Tonyukuk) Comparison of an army with a downpour, with flowing water is extremely stable throughout the development of Turkic literature in various traditions. So, in "Kitab-i dedem Korkut" (XV century), in response to the request of Salor-Kazan to interpret the dream, his brother, Kara-Gyune, answers: "" You are talking about black, this is your happiness; you talk about snow and rain, this is your army; hair care, blood black (calamity); I can’t interpret the rest, let Allah interpret "" (I The story of how the house of Salor-Kazan was plundered; my italics. T.A.). Connection

3 water and blood, which finds expression in various figures of speech (metaphor, hyperbole), apparently, is quite stable in Turkic literature: "Let him let him cross the rivers stained with blood" // Kanlu kanlu sulardan ge ç it versün; monument to Kul-Tegin: "Your blood ran like water" // Qany ŋ sub č a J ü g ü rti). In the monument dating back to a later period, "Oguz-name", when describing the battle, it is said: "The fights, battles were so fierce that the waters of the Itil River turned red-red, like cinnabar" (Oguz-name 19, III V) . The connection with oral epic narration is also emphasized by the formula for the transition from one action (or episode) to another (see the inscription in honor of Tonyukuk): "After I heard those words", "Hearing those words", "Hearing those words, I moved the army. The receipt of new news by Tonyukuk about the intentions of the enemies and the following advice with the Bek serve as an occasion for the further development of the narrative. For example: "Hearing those words, my sleep did not come at night, and during the day I had no rest" (Ol sabyγ äsidip, tün udusyqym kälmädi, küntüz olursyqym kälmädi), "Hearing this word of his" (Ol sabyn äsidip). It is characteristic that the authors of the texts of the inscriptions seem to be addressing the audience, which, according to I.V. Stelevoy, may testify to the oral tradition of performing folklore works that existed at that time: Listen to my speech to the end (fully) (Listen to my speech completely (you)): Sabymyn tukati äsidgil Is there a lie in these words of mine? Beki (and) the people of the Turks, listen to this! Azu bu sabymda igid bargu? Here baglar budun, boons äsidin! (Small inscription in honor of Kul-tegin) The formulas for changing episodes, the narrator's appeals to the listeners are the most stable not only in the Turkic folklore tradition (they are preserved even in its latest genres, for example, in the Turkish urban story), but also universal for most folklore ballads and oral epic of the Balkans, Hungary, England and Spain. The use of constant epithets in all inscriptions ("blue sky" (kok tänpi), "brown earth" (jagyz jir), "seeing eyes", "red blood" (qyzyl qan(ym) ), "black sweat" (qara tär), "yellow gold" (saryγ altun), "light silver" (örüŋ kümüs), "sky-like kagan", which performs the same functions as permanent epithet in folklore works: it expresses the typical, ideal signs of objects, as well as the idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"epic" time: When the blue sky was created (originated) above the blue sky and below the brown (dark) earth, between both of them were created (originated) the sons of men (then there are people). My ancestors Bumyn-kagan and Istemi-kaganÿzä kök tänri asra jagyz jir kylyntukda, äkin ara kisi ogly kylynmys sat over the sons of men. Kisi oglynta ÿzä ächÿm apam Bumyn kagan Istämi kagan olurmysh (Large inscription in honor of Kul-tegin) Proverbs and sayings in the Orkhon texts: Not seen with the eye, not heard with the ear (Inscription in honor of Bilge-Kagan) Inside without food, outside without clothes (Large inscription in honor of Kul-tegin) Time (destiny, terms) distributes Heaven (God) Human sons were born to die there is no consensus on their genre attribution. According to A. von Gaben, the ancient Turkic inscriptions (epitaphs) "are a rich historical source for us, although they were not created for this purpose ... The richness of the material contained in them allows us to conclude that the inscriptions were something like a state archive". Turkologist A. Bombachi (1964) saw in them "a mixture of the genres of historical narrative, political rhetoric and epic", the latter predominating. But already in his monograph of 1968 he defines these inscriptions exclusively as a monument of ancient Turkic historiography, omitting their stylistic features. I.V. Kormushin writes: "The desire at all costs to convince those to whom the inscription is addressed naturally led to the need to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings of the reader. This setting was realized in a special emotional construction of the text, saturated with metaphors, hyperbole, comparisons and other paths. Genre of inscriptions I.V. Kormushin

4 is defined as "a combination of historiographic narratives with ethical-political proclamations". A.N. Kononov saw only "brilliant historical chronicles" in the ancient Turkic inscriptions. Attributing to the Orkhon inscriptions an exclusively epic character folklore work First of all, this stylistic proximity of some of the literary devices used in these monuments to narrative forms, common for the epic of the Turkic-speaking peoples, gave. Folklorist S.A. Surazakov, comparing the stylistic features of the Orkhon inscriptions and some of the Altai heroic tales, showed that there is a similarity between them, but it is impossible to speak of complete identity. In his opinion, the inscriptions themselves "tell about real events and persons, and in this sense represent a historical document." This criterion of narration about real events and historical figures is an important difference from folklorized narrations. According to S.G. Klyashtorny, "although all the pathos of the narrative, the plan of presentation of the Orkhon monuments is aimed at deeds and people, thoughts" today", the authors of the inscriptions could not completely ignore folklore and mythological motifs Be that as it may, the stylistic stereotypes characteristic of inscriptions cannot be direct and unconditional arguments showing the existence of the ancient Turkic epic; such an argument could only be a direct fixation of an indisputable epic plot in a runic monument. It is also necessary to mention the texts from Turfan in the ancient Uyghur language, which were discovered in East Turkestan. most of of these texts is influenced by the Buddhist tradition (in this area Central Asia Buddhism was widespread) these are religious hymns, divinatory texts, calendars, astronomical calculations (about the movement of planets and constellations); texts created under the influence of Islam are partially published in the edition of R. Arat. The Uighur texts from Turfan were translated, published and researched primarily by G.R. Rahmati, A. von Lecoq, W. Bang, R.R. Arathom and A. von Gabin. Despite the fact that these texts cannot be fully attributed to folklore, their very form goes back to the ancient folk traditions, since the creators of the texts borrowed from folk art not only the techniques of versification, but also the system of images. Uighur texts of Muslim content in more are close to the works of Ahmed Yugneki and Yusuf Balasagunsky. "Kutadgu Bilik" ("Blessed Knowledge") is a didactic poem written by Yusuf Balasagunsky in 1068. During this period, from the 11th to the 14th centuries, according to S.E. Malova, "the whole appearance of the language (Uighur. T.A.) is changing, not only its alphabet and content (now Muslim). The bookish language is increasingly experiencing western influence, and gradually passes from the Uighur period to the Chagatai "(which later became the basis of the Uzbek language). The Karakhanid era was long considered a "dark age" in Central Asian historiography. Although the name of the era was introduced early in the dynasty, only V.V. all the scarce information of Muslim authors about the Karakhanids, revealed some trends in the development of the Karakhanid state.The Karakhanids inherited the Western Turkic Khaganate and restored the system that had developed back in the 6th century. In the second half of the 8th century, the Uighurs and the Tang Empire fought the Tibetans for the western part of Central Asia.The Karluks took the side of the Tibetans, but used the situation to their advantage, as a result, in 766 all Semirechye (including Taraz), in the years they captured Kashgaria. To the west, the Karluks extended their influence to the cities of the Middle Syr Darya and captured part of Ferghana. In 840, the Uighur Khaganate fell. Power in the Karakhanid Khaganate was divided between the nobility of two Karluk tribes: the Chigils and the Yagmas. Outwardly, this was expressed in the division of the empire into two parts: eastern and western, headed by their own kagan. In the X century. expansion was started and carried out in two directions towards Khotan and towards Maverannahr, as a result, the border of the Karakhanid Khaganate passed along the river. Amu Darya. Already in the late 30s. 11th century The Karakhanids of Maverannahr separated from the Karakhanids of Kashgar, and after a hundred and fifty years the last Karakhanid princes left the historical arena. In 1210

5 the Eastern Karakhanid dynasty was cut short. In 1212, in Samarkand, Khorezmshah Mohammed also executed the last representative of the Western Karakhanid dynasty. In the years in Kashgar appeared the didactic poem "Kutadgu Bilig" ("Science of how to be happy", or, more precisely, "Blessed knowledge") by Yusuf, originally from Balasagun. No biographical information about the author has survived. "Kutadgu Bilig" is the most ancient Uighur dated monument of Muslim content. The poem was dedicated to the ruler of Kashgar, Bogra Khan, who awarded the author with the honorary rank of khas-hajib (personal chamberlain). "Kutadgu Bilig" over bayts. It was quite popular; it was called the "Ethics of Government", "Sovereign Laws", "Decoration of the Noble", "Advice to the Kings", even "Turkic Shah-name". The treatise of Yusuf Balasagunsky covers all aspects of the life of an ideal ruler and his officials. The teachings are accompanied by information from the most different areas sciences: mathematics, astronomy, medicine. The legendary Iranian kings and heroes are given as necessary examples for imitation. The Muslim orientation of the first composition in classical Turkic poetry is natural. Being faithful Muslims, the Karakhanids could approve such a work, which would present ideas useful for the Turkic dynasty, which acted as the ruler of Maverannahr. At the same time, just such a work could have been created by an author whose erudition leaves no doubt that he was well acquainted with the literature of the Arabs and Persians, which he took as a model. The introductory part of "Kutadgu Bilig" contains an introduction, obligatory for the mesnevi genre, which includes the glorification of God and the Prophet Muhammad, dedication to the ruler, and where the meaning of the book and the reasons for writing it are reported. Distinctive feature compositions of "Kutadgu Bilig" include more than 200 quatrains of the rubai type in the mesnevi, and its final chapters are written in the form of qasid. Thus, the first work in the history of Turkic-language classical poetry included several genres of Arabic and Persian poetry, which later took shape among the Turks into complete and separate literary genres . It is generally accepted that the history of classical Turkic poetry begins with the poem "Kutadgu Bilig". Among other monuments of the Turkic-language literature of this period, one can name Ahmed Yugneki's poem "The Gift of Truths" (Khibat al-khakaik), which dates back to about the 11th-12th centuries. (and possibly even earlier), as well as "Oguz-name" ("The Legend of Oguz-Khan"), which is a written text of the legend about the origin of the Oghuz. This text refers to the time of the existence of the Oghuz state on the Syr Darya, that is, to the period of the VIII X centuries. Among the most important literary and folklore Turkic texts, along with the Orkhon monuments of runic writing, "The Legend of Oguz Khan" ("Oguz-name"), one can name the legends of the only book epic among the Oguz Turks "Kitab-i dedem Korkut" ("Book my grandfather Korkut"). At the end of the VIII century. The Oguzes, an association of Turkic tribes, lived in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and on the coast of the Aral Sea, gradually advancing there from Southern Siberia and moving further west up to the Caspian Sea. As many medieval Arab historians emphasize, the Oghuz were not homogeneous in composition and language. Already in Central Asia, the nomadic Oghuz tribes mixed with other Turkic tribes and Iranian-speaking peoples. In the west they waged wars with the Khazars and the Volga Bulgars. In Xv. the power of the Oghuz increased, their nomadic pastures covered large territories in northern Turkmenistan and southwestern Kazakhstan, which were appropriately called "guz steppes" (Persian desht-i guzan). It was at this time, as a result of discord between the various tribes that were part of the union of the Oguz tribes, that the group under the leadership of Seljuk, who converted to Islam, strengthened. These Oguz tribes began their advance to the west through Transcaucasia, Iran and Asia Minor in the first half of the 11th century. and made a major contribution to the ethnogenesis of modern Turks and Azerbaijanis. Another part of the Oghuz tribes remained in Central Asia in the Aral Sea region and later served as an ethnic substratum for the Turkmens and, to some extent, the Uzbeks. Approximately to the same time, researchers attribute the addition and cyclization of some legends, later included in the "Book of my grandfather Korkut", which is indirectly evidenced by the "age of Korkut", the legendary time mentioned in the epic, corresponding to the 9th-10th centuries. Comparison of the epic text "Kitab-i Dedem Korkut" with other examples of Turkic literature, in particular, with ancient Turkic monuments, is quite justified: "Comparison of the ancient Turkic poems with the heroic epics of the Turkic peoples allows us to trace the evolution of poetic forms, as well as their natural transformation. If in Khakass, Tuva and

In the Yakut folklore, the phenomena of the ancient Turkic verse discovered by us received their ultimate expression, then in the Kyrgyz epic Manas, the same phenomena changed under the influence of Arab-Persian literature. This influence was strongest in the Central Asian epics Alpamysh and Korogly. However, they also reveal a certain connection with ancient Turkic poetry. "I.V. Stebleva also wrote that "the closest thing to the poems of the era of runic verse are, perhaps, the poetic texts from Kitab-i Dedem Korkut, which have come down to us in the literary processing of the 15th century, and not a later edition". Despite the fact that the legends about the exploits of the Oguz heroes were recorded, in the "Book of my grandfather Korkut" there are expressions everywhere, which, being in fact the appeal of the ozan storyteller to his audience, directly indicate on the once purely oral nature of the existence of the epic: G ö rel ü m Hanum ne soylad ı ("Let's see, my khan, what he said" or: "Let's listen to what he told"). With a high degree of probability, it can be argued that in the text of this of the monument, fragments dating back to the ancient oral Turkic tradition have been preserved.First of all, such fragments include proverbs and sayings that are often found in the epic: "The horse's leg is lame, the singer's tongue is agile", "He who has ribs rises, he who has cartilage , he grows up" (X, Song about Sekrek, son of Ushun-Koji) "One horseman in the field will not become a knight; the bottom of an empty vessel will not become strong" (IX, Song about Amran, son of Bekil). Despite the fact that the question of the folklore character of the Turkic runic monuments remains controversial, the continuity of a number of literary forms that exist in ancient Turkic monuments, in Turkic literature and folklore of a later time, it is difficult to deny. Notes Stebleva I. V. Life and literature of pre-Islamic Turks. M., Ibid. Neklyudov S. Yu. Traditions of oral and book culture: correlation and typology // Slavic studies. Collection for the anniversary of S. M. Tolstoy M., S Ibid. Book of my grandfather Korkut. Oguz heroic epic. Translated by academician V. V. Bartold. Published by V. M. Zhirmunsky, A. N. Kononov. M.; L., 1962 ( series Literary Monuments). Mukhabbat-name, Monuments of Old Uyghur and Old Uzbek Literature M., See, for example, in the cycle of Turkish epic tales about Ker-oglu: "Who will we talk about now?" Haberi nerden verek? Gel haberi nerden verek? "Let me tell a story about Ker-oglu." Gel haberi Köroğlu "ndan verelim. Başgöz I. The Tale-Singer and His Audience // Turkish Folklore and Oral Literature. Selected Essays of Ilhan Başgöz. Bloomington: Indiana University, P Klyashtorny S.G. Epic stories in ancient Turkic runic monuments // Klyashtorny S. G. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing and ethno-cultural history of Central Asia. St. Petersburg, With Bombaci A. Histoire de la littérature turque. , Muslim and Buddhist, according to their content; Tugusheva L. Yu. Poetic monuments of the ancient Uighurs // Turkological collection M., P. 237. Arat R. R. Eski Türk şiiri. Ankara: TTK basımevi, Tugusheva L. Yu. Decree. Op. C 237. Malov S. E. Decree op. P. 220. Stebleva I. V. Poetry of the Turks VI VIII centuries M., S Ibid.

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