Changes in Russian artistic culture of the 18th century. Russian culture of the 18th century

In the 18th century, the "Europeanization" of Russian culture took place - the process of introducing Russian culture to the European one. Penetration Western influences to Russia began in the 17th century. There was a German settlement in Moscow. There were many Englishmen and Dutchmen in Russian trade and industry. However, these were only the first symptoms of a new trend in the development of Russian culture. It fully manifests itself in the 18th century. Russia's acquaintance with European culture took place in several bullets: foreign masters were invited to work in Russia, works were acquired European art, Russian masters were sent abroad as pensioners, i.e. at public expense. From the middle of the 18th century, the development of Russian culture corresponding to the all-European development began. From now on, all new cultural movements and artistic directions come from the West and take root on Russian soil (baroque, rococo, classicism, romanticism, etc.). This process covered all spheres of culture (education, enlightenment, book publishing, artistic culture, everyday life). Moreover, in the West, by this time, new forms of life, secular culture, had already been formed. Therefore, Russia had to go through this path of development in all spheres in 50 years, which lasted 2-3 centuries in the West. Russian culture of the 18th century absorbed the problems European culture 15 - 18 centuries, combining the features of both the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.

The assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century is ambiguous. Slavophiles criticized her for copying and imitating, for breaking away from ancient Russian traditions. They talked about the unlimitedness of the spiritual life of the era. Westerners believed that borrowing from European experience was necessary to overcome Russia's backwardness. In their opinion, the Western experience was reworked and rooted in Russian soil. IN Western European culture there are many statements denying any originality of Russian culture.

Conclusion

In the course of writing the abstract, I achieved the goals set and came to the following conclusions.

The development of science is closely connected with the spread of education. The need to know the laws of nature and the increased interest in the study of the country's resources were caused by economic needs.

The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Have changed it genre structure, content, nature, means artistic expression. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics Russian art entered the European way of development. Back in the depths of the 17th century, in the time of Peter the Great, there was a process of "secularization" of Russian culture. In the formation and development of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom the new tasks were beyond their capacity. Foreign masters invited to the Russian service not only helped to create new art, but also were teachers of the Russian people. Another equally important way to get vocational training there was a sending of Russian masters to study in Western Europe. So many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, Germany.

Russian art, as we will see below, continues to develop in the 18th century on new European principles, as before, remained expressed as a national phenomenon with its own specific face, and this fact in itself is very significant.

However, unlike the previous period of time for culture big influence provided by the nobility, and the dominance of foreigners continued.

During this period, Russian science and education continued to develop, although serfdom and the autocracy strongly prevented this. Nevertheless, the tsarist government had to take some measures to spread education - this was required by the era.

In the development of education in Russia, the second half of XVIII V. two trends are clearly visible. The first of these was manifested in a significant expansion of the network educational institutions; the second was expressed in the strengthening of the influence of the principle of class on the formulation of education.

culture Russia XVIII century has a number of features: accelerated the pace cultural development; the secular trend in art became the leading one; accumulated knowledge began to turn into science; new character began to wear links between Russian culture and foreign culture.

Enlightenment and science. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow, from the senior classes of which the Naval Academy was created in St. Petersburg in 1715. Following it, artillery, engineering, medical, mining and other schools were opened. Teaching the children of the nobility to read and write became obligatory. In 1714, 42 digital schools were opened in the provinces. There was a transition to Arabic numerals, the first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti, which appeared on January 2, 1703, also switched to a new font. In 1731, the Shlyakhetsky (noble) corps was opened. Other educational institutions were opened (Smolny Institute, Academy of Arts). In 1755, a university was opened in Moscow on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov.

An important result of the activities of Peter I was the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1725). Great cartographic work was carried out, developed geographical knowledge(V. Bering, K. Krasheninnikov, S. Chelyuskin, D and X. Laptev, I. Kirillov).

The beginning of the Russian historical science(V. N. Tatishchev, M. V. Lomonosov, M. M. Shcherbatov).

In the field of exact sciences and technology, significant successes were achieved associated with the names of L. Euler, D. Bernoulli, I. Polzunov, I. Kulibin and others. M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) played an outstanding role in the development of domestic science ), who, with his encyclopedic knowledge and research, raised Russian science to a new level.

Literature. Since the second half of the 18th century, criticism of serfdom has been at the center of social and political thought (A. N. Radishchev, N. I. Novikov). Russian literature XVIII century is represented by the names of M. V. Lomonosov, V. K. Trediakovsky, A. D. Kantemir, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. D. Derzhavin, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin and etc.

Architecture. Architecture received a new development in the 18th century. In the first half of the century, the dominant style was baroque (from Italian - pretentious), the largest master of which was B. B. Rastrelli. In the second half of the 18th century, the baroque was replaced by classicism (I. E. Starov, V. I. Bazhenov, D. Quarenghi, A. F. Kokorinov, A. Rinaldi and others) - Sculpture develops (B. K. Rastrelli, F. I. Shubin, M. I. Kozlovsky, E. M. Falcone).

Painting. In painting, there is a transition to secular art. Outstanding portrait painters of the first half of the 18th century were A. Matveev and I. Nikitin, in the second half of the century F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky and others created their works.

Theater. In 1750, in Yaroslavl, on the initiative of the merchant F. G. Volkov, the first Russian professional theater. Various serf theaters were created, the most famous theater of Count N. P. Sheremetev.

Main historical dates

Introduction……………………………………………………………...2.

Chapter 1. Educational institutions…………………………………………4.

Chapter 2. Literature………………………………………………….6.

Chapter 3. Architecture……………………………………………….13.

Chapter 4. Sculpture………………………………………………...17.

Chapter 5. Painting………………………………………………….19.

Chapter 6. Theater and Music……………………………………………….24.

Conclusion………………………………………..………………...26.

Literature…………………………………………………………..27.

Introduction

Throughout the history of development philosophical thought culture in one aspect or another was the subject of study by various thinkers, writers, historians. The very word "culture" comes from Latin word colere, which means to cultivate, or cultivate the soil. In the Middle Ages, the word came to refer to a progressive method of cultivating cereals, thus the term "agriculture" or the art of farming arose. But in the XVIII century. it began to be used in relation to people, therefore, if a person was distinguished by the elegance of manners and erudition, he was considered “cultured”. Then this term was applied mainly to aristocrats in order to separate them from the "uncivilized" common people. The German word "Kultur" also meant a high level of civilization.

The topicality of the problem I have chosen lies in the fact that in today's life the word "culture" is still associated with the opera house, excellent literature, good education. But so far, culture has not become the norm for us.

In relation to modern times, it can be said that the totality of material and spiritual values, as well as the ways of their creation, the ability to use them for the progress of mankind, to transfer from generation to generation, constitute culture. The initial form and primary source of the development of culture is human labor, methods of its implementation and results.

The objectives of my essay are very simple. First, to show how in the XVIII century. our country has changed, what progress it has made in development in just one century, and what role the West plays in this. Secondly, to show the transition from religious to secular culture. Culture covers not only the past and present, but also extends into the future. Cultural Development - Organic component the history of society. Constantly developing, culture always manifests itself in specific historical forms.

18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes in the socio-economic sphere and significant achievements in the field of art. In architecture, in sculpture, in painting and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. 18th century in the field of culture and life of Russia - a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.

Russian culture of the second half of the XVIII century. reflects the features of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is growing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Leading writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; the first literary journals appeared.

The absolutist state needed a secular culture. Under Peter I, Western trends actively penetrate into culture and life. This leads to a fruitful synthesis. The main artistic trend in the era of Peter was classicism, which continued to characterize the cultural process until mid-eighteenth V. Its ideological basis was the struggle for a powerful national statehood under the auspices of autocratic power, the assertion of power in artistic images. absolute monarchy.

Classicism was not the only trend noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to the feelings and interests of the common man, predominantly from the “middle” class.

Along with sentimentalism (and more often in combination with it), the realistic tendencies of Russian culture, conventionally called "enlightenment realism", are increasingly being identified. They protested against the feudal ideology with the greatest activity and consistency.

The objectives of the abstract are to study the rapid development of culture in the XVIII century. and Western influence.

Chapter 1. Educational institutions.

In the new culture, there was a trend towards democracy. Educational reforms played a major role in this. A system of secular schools is being created. On the brink of the 19th century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. The social composition of students by that time in general education schools was extremely diverse. Children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of the students was also not the same - both kids and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes.

The common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, the book by F. Prokopovich “The First Teaching to the Young”, “Arithmetic” by L. F. Magnitsky and “Grammar” by M. Smotrytsky, a book of hours and a psalter. Mandatory curricula was not, the term of study ranged from three to five years. Those who completed the course of study were able to read, write, knew the basic information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by the so-called soldiers' schools - general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of the digital schools of the time of Peter the Great. This is the earliest, most democratic elementary school of that time, teaching not only reading, writing, arithmetic, but also geometry, fortification, and artillery. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of the students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The type of soldiers also included national military schools opened in the second half of the 18th century. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools in Russia in the 18th century. - these are closed noble educational institutions: private boarding houses, gentry corps, institutes noble maidens etc., in total more than 60 educational institutions, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Although in the gentry corps (Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering) they trained mainly officers for the army and navy. The first Russian actors, the Volkov brothers, and the playwright Sumarokov studied there; students participated in performances of the court theater. Class educational institutions were also noble boarding schools - private and state: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. They produced well-educated nobles who adopted the ideology of their class. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government: 100 thousand rubles were allocated for one Smolny Institute. per year, while for all folk schools were given 10 thousand rubles. to the province, and this money went not only to public education, but also to the needs of “public charity” - hospitals, almshouses, etc.

The third type of educational institutions includes theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, 20,393 people studied in them (meaning only Orthodox schools). These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; commoners in them, as a rule, were not accepted. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the king, but students of seminaries also received a general education and often became literate guides in their parishes.

A small number (about two dozen) of special schools (mining, medical, navigational, land surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as the Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although only about 1.5 thousand people studied in them, they played important role in the training of specialists, in which Russia then especially needed.

Finally, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765. Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov. Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually acted as a university since the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to science in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages and Russian literature.

Moscow University was large cultural center. He published the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", had his own printing house; various literary and scientific societies worked under him. D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovskiy came out of the university.

Outstanding discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry, astronomy were made by Lomonosov. E. R. Dashkova, head of the Academy of Sciences, did a lot to organize research. I. P. Kulibin created a semaphore telegraph, a screw elevator, a 300-meter single-arch bridge, I. I. Polzunov - the world's first steam engine. M. M. Shcherbatov wrote "Russian History ..." in 7 volumes.

Chapter 2. Literature.

For the 18th century characteristic is the emergence of new themes and images brought to life by changed historical conditions. Rebellious poetic creativity invariably accompanies the people throughout its history, being an artistic response to the major events of reality. In different eras, folk art took different forms.

The central place in the oral folk art of the XVIII century. occupy songs and legends about Pugachev. These songs were created during the battles of the rebels with the Tsarist troops. The people see in Pugachev a people's tsar, a peasant protector and avenger. IN folk tales Pugachev is a hero, a hero-commander who is closely connected with the people and opposes the nobility; he became the leader of the rebels.

In addition to songs about Pugachev, in the XVIII century. previously created songs about Razin, about “good fellows, free people” were popular.

In the XVIII century. traditional genres of folk art continued to be widespread - epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, everyday songs, etc. It can not be considered an accident that in the XVIII century. proverbs were written down, reflecting the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe will: “will to the master, but bondage to the serf”, “will does not want bondage”, “in the field-will”.

In handwritten democratic literature of the 18th century. works of folk art penetrated, which could not be printed due to censorship slingshots. Such is the “Lament of Serfs”, which reveals with expressive comparisons the “ferocity” of the bar and the servitude of the serfs. The difficult life of the starving courtyards was reflected in the peasant Tale of the Pakhrin village of Kamkin. Now a complaint, now bitter laughter through tears is heard in handwritten parodies of official documents. In The Deaf Passport, the author bitterly speaks of the impossibility of a fugitive peasant finding work; poverty pushes him onto the path of robbery and robbery. The hard soldier's service is vividly described in hand-written stories of soldier origin - in a parody petition to God and in the "Sorrowful Tale". Folk satire penetrates into popular prints- such is the picture “The bull did not want to be a bull”, where the people's dreams of social justice are expressed in an allegorical form.

The main motives of the oral folk drama are a sharp denunciation of the villainous tsar (the drama “Tsar Maximilian”), a servant’s mockery of a ruined nobleman (“The Imaginary Master”), calls for reprisal against the nobles (“The Boat”). This genre of oral folk art was reflected in an intelligible game form class conflicts of the time.

Literature in the first half of the 18th century was the heyday of the story ("history"). Widely known was the "Story of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky", which reflected the ideology and real life that time. This story was supposed to convince the reader that respect, honor and wealth are achieved due to the personal qualities of a person, and not the nobility of his family.

The period under consideration occupies an important place in the process of formation of a new literary language, which was largely facilitated by the introduction of the civil alphabet. However, literature is characterized by great linguistic diversity, as Church Slavonic continued to be used.

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   Landscape, historical and household genres. At first 18 century from a rather primitive image of the human ... / T.V. Ilyin. - M., 2000. Krasnobaev, B.I. History essays Russian culture XVIII century

The 18th century in the history of our state was marked by many significant historical events: gaining access to the Black Sea, a "window to Europe", strengthening the country's authority in the international arena.
The spiritual sphere has undergone significant changes. Distinctive feature culture of this period - its secular nature. Now the church no longer determines its character and direction, as it was a century earlier. Thus, everything greater value acquires scientific knowledge, not religious teaching.
The strengthening of relations between the Russian state and the countries of Europe contributed to the spread of free-thinking thought in the country. Its main themes are the denunciation of the vices of autocracy and criticism of the feudal system. A. N. Radishchev is considered to be the first Russian revolutionary.
Historically, it is customary to subdivide the culture of the 18th century into two periods:
the end of the XVIII - the first quarter of the XVIII century a (formation new culture in which reason dominates faith, and science over religion, which denounces the shortcomings of autocracy and serfdom),
the second quarter - the end of the 18th century (the formation of class culture: the nobility is increasingly trying to resemble the lords and barons of Europe, arranging magnificent balls with music and dancing, literally suffocating in luxury; the peasants still live in their own, deeply religious, world, working from morning to night).

secular school

A major role in the creation of the secular school, which arose as a replacement for the spiritual one, belongs to Peter I. At the beginning of the century, the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences began its work, and the Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg was founded. Later, Engineering, Artillery, Medical and many other schools were opened. The children of nobles studied in them.
In addition, many more educational institutions were opened: the Shlyakhetsky noble corps, the Academy of Arts, Moscow University, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens. However, in almost all of them only representatives of the nobility studied.
In 1708 it was made important discovery: the transition to a new, simpler, civil script and Arabic numerals, one hundred greatly simplified the educational process.

Social thought and literature

The central theme of social thought of this period is peasant question. A. N. Radishchev, mentioned above, criticized him. The controversy of Empress Catherine the Great with N. I. Novikov is also widely known on this issue.
Among the most famous writers of this period: N. M. Karamzin, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, I. A. Krylov. Separately, it is necessary to single out the famous M. V. Lomonosov, who became famous not only in literature, but also in many areas of science.
Classicism with its cult of reason and sentimentalism with the cult of sensuality dominated in literary movements XVIII century.

Science and technology

The opening of the Academy of Sciences in 1725 was of great importance in the development of science.
At that time, ore deposits and oil deposits were discovered in the Urals. Big job was made in the study of the eastern and northern regions of the country (S. Chelyuskin, Laptev brothers). As a result, the first Russian atlas was published. I.K. Kirillov became its author.
Historical thought also began to develop. Famous historians of that time: V. N. Tatishchev, M. Yu. Lomonosov, I. N. Boltin, M. M. Shcherbatov. This also includes N. M. Karamzin, already mentioned above, who also worked in the literary field.

Architecture

Buildings constructed in the 18th century are characterized by splendor, pretentiousness, brilliance and magnificence. This is the essence of the Baroque, the prevailing architectural style that time. The Kamenny and Kuznetsky bridges, the Cloth bridge, and the Mint are being built. According to the project of V. V. Rastrelli, the famous architect of that time, were erected: St. Andrew's Church, Winter Palace, Smolny Monastery, Mariinsky Palace.

The second half of the century - the dominance of classicism in architecture with its symmetry and strict observance of forms. Examples of classic architectural monuments: Marble Palace, Academy of Arts, Trinity Cathedral, etc.

Painting and sculpture

The 18th century is the time when such an art form as sculpture acquires its significance. Sculptures decorated the living rooms of the nobles, gardens, parks. famous following works of that time: a bust of A. V. Suvorov, made by M. I. Kozlovsky, a monument to Minin and Pozharsky I. P. Martos, Bronze Horseman E. M. Falcone.
The leading genre of painting of that time was the portrait, which showed not only the appearance of a person, but also his mental suffering. Such artists as A. P. Antropiev, D. G. Levitsky, I. P. Argunov worked in this field.
Thus, almost all directions cultural life Russia of the 18th century is actively developing, trying to catch up with Europe in this respect. However, almost all the changes and innovations of this period concerned only one class, the nobility, which, moreover, is trying to separate itself from the rest of the world by creating balls, receptions, assemblies, where only representatives of the privileged class were invited.
However, an important feature of this period is the awareness of the difficult, sometimes even mendicant, position of the peasantry. This trend will find even more vivid reflection in the social thought of the next century.

XVIII century - new stage in the history of Russia and in the development of Russian culture. Changes in the field of culture were largely due to socio-economic and political changes - primarily the ripening of the capitalist way of life in the depths of feudalism and the completion of the process of formation of an absolute monarchy. The most important characteristic Russian culture of the XVIII century was its secular character; the formation of the secular culture of Russia. During the period under review, the process of formation national consciousness And national culture; there is a significant expansion of cultural contacts with European countries. An essential quality of the new culture was its openness. It gave her flexibility, receptivity to include in her system the experience and results of the development of other cultures.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which affected all areas of life, but perhaps the most impressive were in the field of culture. They covered education, the organization of science, book publishing, printing, urban planning, architecture, even clothing and entertainment. The goal of all Peter's reforms was the Europeanization of Russian culture. However, whole line cultural innovations were dictated by the practical tasks of the development of trade and industry, the restructuring of the army and navy, state structures.

It's about on the reform of the education system, preparation more qualified specialists. Already in 1699, the Pushkar School was founded in Moscow, and the Navigational School (of mathematical and navigational sciences) was opened in the building of the Sukharev Tower. Behind the Navigation School (in 1715 it was transformed into the Naval Academy), the Artillery (1701) and Engineering (1712) schools, the Medical School (1707) appeared. Under the Ambassadorial order, a school was created for the training of translators. During the time of Peter the Great, engineering, shipbuilding, navigational, mining and craft schools were also opened. In the province elementary education was carried out in three types of schools: digital - for the training of local officials; diocesan - preparing clergy; garrison - for the education of soldiers' children.

The development of secular education caused the appearance of new textbooks. The most famous is "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" by Leonty Magnitsky, published in 1703. Russian schoolchildren studied mathematics in it for half a century. In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil font instead of Church Slavonic. For the printing of secular educational, scientific and special literature, new printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. During the reign of Peter I, more than 600 book titles were published. The development of printing led to the emergence of an organized book trade, and in 1714 the first public library, which laid the foundation for the library of the Academy of Sciences. Since 1702, the first printed newspaper Vedomosti began to be published in Russia.

The practical needs of the state dictated the need for the development of science and technology. Great successes have been achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of subsoil and mineral resources. Russian sailors - hydrographers have done a lot to map the Azov, Caspian, Baltic and White Seas. Expeditions were made to Siberia, Far East, V Central Asia. In 1725, Peter I signed a decree on sending the first Kamchatka sea expedition under the command of V.I. Bering and A.I. Chernigov (this expedition took place after the death of Peter I).

Geological surveys have gained wide scope. There were searches for iron ores in the Urals and Siberia, coal, oil fields in Western and eastern regions countries. The names of Russian inventors of the Petrine era are known: A. Nartov, Ya. Batishchev, E. Nikonov and others. Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov(1693-1756), "personal turner" of Peter I, was an outstanding mechanic of his time. He improved the machines of coinage, improved the technique of drilling cannon barrels, designed a device for lifting and installing the Tsar Bell in the Moscow Kremlin. Of all his inventions, lathes stand out in particular.

At the initiative of Peter the Great, the collection of scientific collections was initiated in Russia. In 1718, a decree was issued ordering the population to deliver to the Kunstkamera everything that was "very old and unusual." In the Kunstkamera one could see the skeletons of extinct animals, ancient manuscripts, ancient cannons and much more. The basis of the collection of the Kunstkamera was the anatomical collection brought by Peter the Great from Holland. In 1719 the Kunstkamera was opened for free visiting.

The result of the achievements of the time of Peter the Great in the field of science and education was the creation (by decree of 1724) in St. Petersburg of the Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of Peter I in 1725. The Academy was created not only as a nationwide scientific center, but also as a base for training scientific personnel. Under her, a university and a gymnasium were opened.

In the Petrine era in urban planning, a transition was made to the regular building of cities, the creation of large architectural ensembles, mostly civilian, not religious purposes. Most a prime example this is the construction of St. Petersburg. A complex of buildings and structures became remarkable architectural monuments Peter and Paul Fortress, Petra's summer palace, built by the famous Italian architect Domenino Trezzini. Domestic architects are also nominated: M.G. Zemtsov(building of the Twelve Colleges), I.K. Korobov (Admiralty), I.P. Zarudny(Sukharev and Menshikov Tower in Moscow).

The beginning of the 18th century was the time of the gradual establishment of secular painting, which was replacing icon painting. Unlike the parsun of the 17th century. portraits early XVIII centuries finally freed from the canon; artists strive to convey personality traits, inner world heroes. The outstanding portrait painters of that time were Ivan Nikitich Nikitin ( 1690 - 1742), who repeatedly painted portraits of Peter I, and Andrey Matveev (1701-1739).

A new phenomenon in Russian culture was the spread sculptural compositions. Because in Orthodox Russia Traditionally, sculpture did not develop, then statues for palace and park ensembles were purchased abroad, mainly in Italy.

The first quarter of the 18th century was the time when the theater turned into a public spectacle with educational rather than entertaining tasks. The first public theater in the country was opened in Moscow on Red Square in 1702. German actors performed plays by foreign authors in the built "comedy mansion". Later, a theater arose, where performances were staged on contemporary themes, the victories of Russian weapons in the Northern War were glorified.

In the era of Peter I, all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life in Russian society were radically broken. The tsar, by order, introduced barbering, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book "Youth's Honest Mirror".

An important innovation of the Petrine era was the adoption of the Julian calendar in Russia. Since 1700, the beginning of the year began to be considered not September 1, but January 1, and the counting of years began to be conducted from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the Creation of the world, as was previously customary in Russia.

The patriarchal way of life gradually gave way to "secularism" and rationalism. In 1718, Peter I issued a decree on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. The law laid down the detailed schedule of the assemblies. The use of foreign words, mainly French, was encouraged in conversations.

As a result of the reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century, great changes took place in the culture of Russia. They touched not only science, the education system, art, but also spiritual values ​​and appearance members of the privileged class. However, the transformations practically did not affect the peasants and the lower strata of the city. Moreover, Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many researchers talk about the cultural conflict as a consequence of Peter's reforms. Misunderstanding, confrontation between two cultures - the most important factor, which determined the development of Russia in the XVIII - XIX centuries.

The foundation of the secular system of education and science laid by Peter I continued to be strengthened under his successors, although not with such intensity. The accumulation of knowledge and the growing needs of the state for qualified specialists set new challenging tasks in the field of education. In 1731, the Land Gentry Cadet Corps was established - class military educational institution closed type. The corps trained not only future officers Russian army but also civil officials; in addition to military disciplines, foreign languages, geography, and jurisprudence were included in the program. Later, the Naval, Artillery, Engineering Corps were formed. In other words, a system of class education of the nobility is being formed (under Peter I, nobles could study together with people from other classes).

There were two educational institutions in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences - a gymnasium and a university. But the meager material base, the unsuccessful selection of teachers from foreigners who did not speak Russian, the autocracy and unscrupulousness in financial matters of I. Schumacher, one of the leaders of the Academy of Sciences, had a negative impact on the quality of teaching and training of students. The fight against "Schumacherism", in the words of Lomonosov, was waged by many scientists, including the great Russian scientist. Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov(1711-1765) led in the 40s-50s years XVIII centuries of struggle to improve the educational activities of the Academy of Sciences and to create the first Russian university in Moscow.

Moscow University, which opened in 1755, had three faculties: philosophy, which included the physical and mathematical and verbal departments, medical and legal. Characteristically, there is no theological faculty in the structure of the university, which is traditional for European educational institutions of this type. Thus, the emergence of secular education and secular schools in Russia culminated in the creation of a secular institution of higher education.

Lomonosov's idea of ​​the continuity of the connection between different levels of education was embodied at Moscow University: two gymnasiums were created at the university, one for noble children, the other for children from other classes. Moscow University from the very beginning also acted as a distributor scientific knowledge: public lectures were held in it, public debates were held, scientific and educational literature was published.

Attempts to reform the education system were made in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II, considering herself an "enlightened monarch", decided to create a "new breed of people." This task was entrusted I.I. Betsky. In 1764, the Empress approved the "General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth" developed by Betsky. Based on the ideas of the French enlighteners, Betskoy believed that a child isolated from the family and placed in the care of educators could grow up perfect person. Therefore, his project provided for the creation of closed educational institutions of the boarding type, accepting children at the age of 5-6 and releasing them into life by the age of 18-20. The estate principle was strictly observed. For noble children, privileged cadet corps, "schools for noble maidens". For commoners - a school at the Academy of Arts, educational houses in all provinces. Nothing was said about the education and upbringing of peasant children.

The planned creation of a "breed of new people" was undoubtedly a utopia and therefore could not be realized. However, in accordance with the project, a number of educational institutions were opened in Russia: a school at the Academy of Arts, educational houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg, a commercial school; reformed cadet corps. The opening of a society of two hundred noble maidens in St. Petersburg (1764) laid the foundation for women's education in Russia.

Catherine II, who continues to believe in the power of education, carried out another reform in education. In 1782-1786. was held in Russia school reform, which created a system of uniformly organized educational institutions with uniform curricula and common methodology. These were "folk schools" - the main ones in the provincial cities and small ones in the counties. The first were a four-year school, where, in addition to the primary disciplines, the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, natural science, architecture, mechanics and physics were taught. The second was a two-class school and gave elementary knowledge. IN late XVIII century in Russia, there were 288 public schools, in which 22 thousand people studied.

Thus, in the 18th century, a huge step forward was made in comparison with the previous period - a system of secular educational institutions was created. However, it should be noted that the majority of the people (primarily the peasantry) continued to remain outside the walls of schools, colleges, and universities.

The opening in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences was of key importance for the development of Russian science. In terms of its status, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was close to the Paris and Berlin Academies, which used state support, however, the dependence of a scientific institution on state power in Russia was closer than in the West. The St. Petersburg Academy was actually subordinate to the Senate and suffered from bureaucratic interference in its internal affairs. Thus, for 35 years, the adviser to the Chancellery and the librarian of the Academy, I.D. Schumacher, who created many obstacles in the work of M.V. Lomonosov and other scientists. At the same time, the Academy, financed by funds allocated from the state budget, was well equipped technically. It had a Kunstkamera, an observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, and a library.

Major scientific forces were concentrated in the Academy of Sciences: the mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, the astronomer J. Delisle, the physicists G. Richmann and F. Aepinus. Long years a genius worked here Leonard Euler(1707-1783), who came to Russia in 1727. Only in the publications of the St. Petersburg Academy, he published over 460 books (and in total he created 800 books, textbooks, articles). His scientific interests were wide: technology and theory of machines, logic, the design of optical lenses, calculations of the movement of celestial bodies, and much more. But almost 40% of his works are devoted to arithmetic, algebra and mathematical analysis. Euler's role in the history of Russian science is great. He supported Lomonosov in his fight against "enemies of Russian sciences". More than one generation of Russian mathematicians was brought up on his works.

The activity of the great scientist-encyclopedist of the XVIII century M.V. Lomonosov. There is probably no area of ​​the then science that Lomonosov would not have been involved in. According to A.S. Pushkin, "Lomonosov embraced all branches of education. The thirst for science was the strongest passion of this soul, full of passions. Historian, rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist, artist and poet, he experienced everything and penetrated everything."

Lomonosov conducted research in various fields of physics. He studied the liquid, solid and gaseous states of bodies; conducted experiments on electricity and put forward a number of hypotheses about the nature electric charge in the clouds. Observing in 1761 the passage of Venus across the disk of the Sun, Lomonosov discovered the atmosphere on Venus. The scientist experimentally proved one of the basic laws of nature - the law of conservation of matter and motion. He resolutely rejected the then widespread opinion about the existence of a special substance - caloric, the kinetic nature of heat was clear to him, and he came close to the concept of absolute zero.