Russian culture and education in the 18th century. Russian architecture of the 18th century

ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC

INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY OF ECONOMY, POLITICS AND CULTURE

TEST

in the discipline "Culturology"

"Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century"

Executor:

speciality

record book number

Teacher:

Plan

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 3

2. Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century ..…… 3

3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 12

4. List of used literature………………………………………. 13

Introduction

IN XVIII century Russian culture has entered a new period of its development. After a long time of forced cultural isolation, due to the three centuries of Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Rus' from everything "heretical", "Western", Russian art enters the path of pan-European development and gradually frees itself from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of the new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic, dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play more and more important role in the system of civic education, in the formation of new foundations public life countries. At the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past. Joining the rich cultural heritage Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on the indigenous domestic traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art.

Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century.

Peter's reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced a lot, which had an impact on the further development of culture.

From January 1, 1700, it was introduced new chronology - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia was created - Kunstkamera.

For the first time under Peter 1, education became a state policy, general and special schools were opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences. Young people began to be sent abroad to learn a craft - ship and maritime business, as well as science and art.

In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow - navigation school – the first secular state educational institution. Under the Ambassadorial Order, a school was created for teaching foreign languages, and later - the school of clerical employees. A number of vocational schools were created in Moscow and other cities - Artillery, Engineering, Medical, at the Ural factories - mining schools. At first, along with children, nobles and children of commoners were admitted to schools, but gradually schools began to turn into closed educational institutions only for noble children.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, the so-called digital schools - state primary general education schools for boys of all classes, except for peasants. Those who did not have a certificate of graduation from the digital school were not even allowed to marry. In 1786 was published Charter of public schools - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula, class-lesson system were introduced

The organization of secondary higher education was closely connected with the creation Academy of Sciences (officially since 1724). At first, there were only foreigners among the academicians. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) became the first Russian academician, a scientist of world significance. He was also the largest Russian poet who laid the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of Russian science and the organization of education.

In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, University of Moscow, became a major cultural center. He had philosophical, legal, medical faculties.

At the end of the XVIII century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. The book publishing business has grown significantly. In 1708-1710. a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. Were introduced civil (as opposed to church) alphabet and civil seal, which contributed to the increase in the publication of secular, civil books, including textbooks.

The first Russian printed newspaper was Vedomosti (1702-1727), published by decree of Peter 1. In 1703-1704. 39 numbers came out. Since 1710 The newspaper was printed in civil type.

Extensive book publishing activities greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of civil type helped to strengthen secular language, although Church Slavonic was still widely spoken.

At that time, popular poetic works- satires, odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemira (1708-1744).

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov(1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg.

The last quarter of the 18th century was the heyday of the work of a major poet of that time Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin(1743-1816). The main genre of his works was Oh yeah. In them, he gave a broad picture of his contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on the nobles. His famous ode "Felitsa" imbued with the idea of ​​a strong state power.

Russian manners and customs expressed in his social comedies "Foreman" and "Undergrowth" Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744/45-1792), who denounced ignorance and tyranny.

founder Russian sentimentalism ((from French - feeling), a trend in literature and art at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, proclaiming the cult of feelings and nature) became Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin(1766-1826), novelist "Poor Liza", "Village", "Natalya, the boyar's daughter".

In the Petrine era, innovations were introduced both in architecture and construction, due to the requirements of the government to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures.

The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were Khamovny yard, Cloth yard, Big stone bridge, Arsenal in the Kremlin, as well as a three-story building Main pharmacy, where the first Russian university was located at the beginning.

An outstanding architect of Moscow in the 50s of the XVIII century was Dmitry Vasilievich Ukhtomsky(1719-1774). He not only headed the "architectural supervision" of construction in Moscow, but also developed an intensified architectural activity. According to his design, the triumphant Red Gates were replaced in 1753 with stone ones.

The most interesting and significant work of Ukhtomsky was bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

In 1749 Ukhtomsky organized in Moscow the first in Russia architectural school, in which, under his leadership, such outstanding Russian architects as V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov and others.

The Petrine era is characterized, first of all, by the construction of a new capital - Petersburg(since 1703), for which foreign architects were invited Trezzini, Rastrelli.

Among the public buildings of St. Petersburg stood out Gostiny Dvor, Exchange, Admiralty.

Simultaneously with St. Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built. Peterhof was conceived as a country residence of Peter I, which he wanted to liken to Versailles.

Decisive for the dawn of the Russian Baroque style was the activity of Rastrelli's father and son. Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli (1675-1744), Italian sculptor, worked in St. Petersburg from 1716. He took part in the decoration of Peterhof, made sculptural portraits of Peter I and Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child.

His son- Bartolomeo Rastrelli(1700-1771) - in Russia they called Bartholomew Varfolomeevich, he was already a Russian architect. The style of his architecture is Russian baroque, which absorbed Western and Russian traditions. He is the author Smolny Monastery and Winter Palace In Petersburg, Grand Palace in Peterhof, Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, etc. Rastrelli loved scope, splendor, bright colors, used rich sculptural decoration, intricate ornament.

In the 60s of the XVIII century, Russian baroque in architecture was replaced by Russian classicism which reached its peak at the beginning of the 19th century. Architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov.

A talented Russian architect was Vasily Petrovich Bazhenov(1737/38-1799), he built: palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, Pashkov House- most beautiful building XVIII century in Moscow, Mikhailovsky Castle In Petersburg.

Also famous is the name Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov(1738-1812), who developed types of city houses and public buildings in Moscow. According to his projects built: Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, Moscow University, Golitsyn Hospital(now the First City), Petrovsky Palace, erected in pseudo-Gothic style, Nobility Assembly with great hall of columns. Kazakov supervised the drawing up of the master plan of Moscow, organized the School of Architecture.

Ivan Egorovich Starov(1745-1808) - the author of a number of remarkable architectural creations in St. Petersburg: Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and the Tauride Palace- a monument to the victory in the Russian-Turkish war.

The surviving buildings of the 18th century are still not only an adornment of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance.

In the XVIII century, the fine arts - painting, sculpture, etc. - are also undergoing changes. This is the heyday of portrait painting.

The most famous artists of that time - Andrey Matveev(1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin(c. 1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting skills abroad. Andrei Matveev owns the first in Russian art "Self-portrait with wife". In portraits "Outdoor Hetman" "Peter I on his deathbed" Ivan Nikitin was far ahead of his contemporaries in terms of depth and form of artistic expression.

By the end of the 1920s, there was a turning point to the courtier direction in painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, sculptors - F.I. Shubin and M.I. Kozlovsky. It was a time of intensive development of personality, which was reflected in the portraits of artists.

The greatest portraitist was Dmitry Levitsky(1735-1822). He created a rich series of ceremonial portraits - from a portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. In his works, solemnity is combined with colorful richness. His portraits of women are distinguished by the vitality of the images, especially the "Smolyanka", pupils of the Smolny Institute.

The classical direction was represented Mikhail Kozlovsky(1753-1802) - sculptor and draftsman. His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially pronounced in the statue for the cascade in Peterhof. "Samson Ripping the Lion's Mouth"- an allegorical figure personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. His monument to A.V. Suvorov in Petersburg.

At the end of the 18th century, one of the richest art collections in the world was formed - Hermitage . The Hermitage (from the French ermitage - a place of solitude) is one of the world's largest art and history museums. Hermitage buildings - the Winter Palace (1754-1762, architect V.V. Rastrelli), the Small Hermitage (1764-1767, architect J.B. Valen-Delamot), the Old Hermitage (1771-1787, architect Y.M. Felten), New Hermitage (1839-1852, architect L. Von Klenze), Hermitage Theater (1783-1787, architect G. Quarenghi). It is based on a private collection of paintings by Western European masters (since 1764) of Catherine II. Opened to the public in 1852.

The fine arts of the 18th century made a significant step forward in the development of the secular trend.

The development of the theater continued in the 18th century. In 1702, at the behest of Peter I, a public public theater intended for the general public. Especially for him, a building was built on Red Square in Moscow - the Comedy Temple. In 1706, the theater ceased to exist, as it did not receive subsidies.

In the middle of the 18th century, foreign acting groups - French, German and others - performed in many cities. But among the public, interest in the Russian theater grew, associated with a general rise in national self-consciousness. In 1750, performances of the first public theater began in Yaroslavl with Russian actors, artists, and musicians. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fedor Grigorievich Volkov(1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna ordered Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to court, and in 1752 the theater moved to St. Petersburg. On the basis of this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the Empress, a theater was created "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." Sumarokov became its director, and the first court actor was Fyodor Volkov, who became famous for playing the main roles in the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater was created under the name Russian theater (since 1832 - Alexandrinsky).

In 1779, a private theater was created on the Tsaritsyn meadow (Field of Mars), which was directed by a famous Russian actor I.A. Dmitrievsky(1734-1821), who played in the theater of F. Volkov in Yaroslavl. In this theater, the plays of D.I. Fonvizin, but in 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780 in Moscow was opened Petrovsky Theater where drama, opera and ballet performances were staged.

Ballet in Russia it originated as separate dance numbers in intermissions, first in drama, then in opera performances. Gradually, ballet troupes began to take shape.

With the accession to the Russian throne in 1741, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, a decree was issued on the establishment in St. Russian ballet troupe.

The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received the court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were: Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers were Balashov and Raikov, who staged comic ballets and divertissement in Moscow. Arina Sobakina became the leading Moscow dancer.

There was also fortress theater- these were noble theaters with a troupe of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (the theaters of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs and others). The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors: Praskovya Zhemchugova, Tatyana Shlykova-Granatova.

Fortress theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

In the 18th century, secular musical art began to spread widely.

In 1802 in St. Petersburg was created Philharmonic Society which performed ancient and classical music. In the last third of the 18th century, the composer school, the first Russian composers appear - authors of opera, choral, instrumental, chamber music. A major achievement of the Russian musical culture of that time became a musical melodrama "Orpheus" composer E.I. Fomina (1761-1800). He was also the creator of a song opera based on a national Russian plot. "Coachman on a base", operas "Americans" and other works. During this time he created operas and D.S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825) – "Falcon", "Rival Son" and others. Bortnyansky is the author of about 200 pieces of music.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - Russian romance to the verses of Russian poets. One of the creators of the Russian romance was O.A. Kozlovsky(1754-1831), who wrote "Russian songs" heroic-patriotic polonaises. One of them to the words of G.R. Derzhavin "Thunder of Victory Evolve" has long been the Russian national anthem.

Conclusion .

The results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century are very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all types of art continued. At the same time, the strengthening of ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. The strengthening of the power of the Russian state, which became one of the largest states in the world, contributed to the formation of the Russian nation and the single Russian language, which became the greatest cultural wealth of the Russian people. All areas of culture were developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There was a secularization, secularization of culture, the penetration of the ideas of the Enlightenment into Russia. This contributed to the emergence of new types of culture - the first literary magazines, fiction, public theater, secular music. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The sphere of spiritual activity of the Russian people has significantly expanded.

List of used literature:

1. History of world culture: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1998. - 600 p.: ill. color

2. V.V. Mavrodin Birth new Russia- M.: 1998.

3. Lecture notes (lecturer - Aysina Faina Osmanovna).

The pace of cultural development has accelerated, which is associated with the development of the country's economy. The secular direction in art became the leader. Although the church in the XVIII century. and was subordinate to the state, its role in the life of the country was still significant. In the XVIII century. scattered knowledge in various fields, collected by many generations of people, began to turn into science; the accumulation of knowledge made it possible to proceed to the discovery of the law of development of nature and society.

In the second half of the XVIII century. for the first time, criticism of certain aspects of the feudal system was voiced, and at the end of the century, the first Russian revolutionary A. N. Radishchev called for the destruction of slavery and autocracy. Relations between Russian culture and foreign culture began to bear a new character. "Window to Europe" through the Baltic, access to the Black Sea, the growth of Russia's international prestige led to the establishment of permanent contacts with European countries.

So, to replace the medieval, traditionalist, permeated with a religious worldview culture of the 9th-17th centuries. in the 18th century the new culture is coming. Its distinguishing features are secularism, a rationalistic (from the word ratio - mind) worldview, greater democracy and openness in contacts with the cultures of other countries and peoples.

Culture of the 18th century largely determined by educational philosophy with its idea of ​​the primacy of knowledge and reason in people's lives, attention to the human person. The idea of ​​equality of all people was understood in Russia as the need to regulate the life of each social stratum.

Within the history of Russian culture XVIII V. It is customary to distinguish two periods: late XVII- the first quarter of the 18th century, characterized by the formation of a new Russian culture; the middle - the second half of the 18th century, when the process of folding and flourishing of the class, mainly secular, culture of the nobility and peasant culture, which continued to be mostly traditional, took place. The pinnacle of Russian aristocratic culture was an attempt to create perfect world within the framework of a noble estate, where harmonious relations are established between people, between man and nature.

In Russian art of the first half - the middle of the XVIII century. the baroque style dominated, in the second half of the century - classicism. At the end of the XVIII century. the cult of reason (classicism) was replaced by the cult of feelings (sentimentalism).

The rise of the secular school

The secular nature of education, the combination of teaching with practice, fundamentally distinguished the school of Peter the Great from the former schools that were in the hands of the clergy. In 1701 in Moscow, in the building of the former Sukharev Tower (named after the Streltsy Regiment of Colonel Sukharev, who was stationed nearby), the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Naval Academy (now the Higher Naval Academy) was created. Following the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, Artillery, Engineering, Medical Schools, the School of Office Workers, and later mining schools were opened. Teaching the children of the nobility to read and write became obligatory. Peter forbade even marrying nobles who shied away from studies. A huge step forward in the development of education and the secular school was the introduction in 1708 of a civil typeface to replace the hard-to-read Church Slavonic and the transition from designating numbers using letters to Arabic numerals. The first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti, which began to be published in December 1702, switched to the new typeface. By decree of 1714, 42 digital schools were opened in the provinces, they accepted children of the unprivileged classes (except for the children of serfs).

In wartime conditions (Northern War, etc.) there was a great need for specialists, therefore, in the first Peter's schools, "children of all kinds, including (except) landlord peasants" were recruited. However, from the second quarter of the XVIII century. the government moved to the creation of closed estate educational institutions. Education became another privilege of the ruling class. To prepare noblemen for officer service in the army and navy in St. Petersburg in 1731, the Shlyakhetsky (noble) corps was opened, which was later divided into Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering. Preparation for civil service at the imperial court was carried out in the Corps of Pages. In 1763, an Orphanage was opened in Moscow, where orphans, foundlings and children who could not be fed by raznochintsy parents were educated. Soon the Smolny Institute was opened in St. Petersburg noble maidens(1764), as well as noble pensions. Noble children were also educated through the system of private education. The children of the clergy studied at theological seminaries and theological academies, the children of commoners and merchants - at medical, mining, commercial and other professional schools, as well as at the Academy of Arts. Recruiting children were trained in soldier's schools, which trained non-commissioned officers (sergeants) for the army.

Thus, by the middle of the 18th century, a system of closed estate schools had developed in Russia. Only at the end of the century (1786) formally classless four-class main public schools were opened in each province, and two-class small public schools were opened in each county. However, education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. At the end of the XVIII century. only two people out of a thousand studied in Russia, and entire estates (serfs) were almost completely deprived of the opportunity to receive an education.

An outstanding event in the life of the country was the creation in 1755 of the first Moscow University in Russia on the initiative and project of M. V. Lomonosov with the active support of the enlightened favorite of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna I. I. Shuvalov, who became its first curator. On the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov, in 1757 the Academy of Arts was created, which before moving to St. Petersburg in 1764 was attached to Moscow University. From the day of its foundation, Moscow University seemed to have risen above the class school. In accordance with the ideas of the creator of the university, education in it was classless (children of serfs could be admitted to the university, having received freedom from the landowner). M.V. Lomonosov wrote that "the university was created for the general education of raznochintsy." Lectures at the university were given in Russian. M. V. Lomonosov saw one of the most important tasks of the university in the dissemination of scientific knowledge. In this matter, the printing house and library of the university, as well as public lectures of its professors, began to play a prominent role.

Science and technology

The most important result of the activity of Peter I in the field of science was the opening in St. Petersburg in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences, the decree on the foundation of which was signed a year earlier. The Academy included a university and a gymnasium for personnel training.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the study of natural conditions and mapping of the country began. Russian miners discovered the richest ore deposits in the Urals, which provided the metal needed during the Northern War. Work was carried out on the exploration of the Donetsk coal region and Baku oil. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, Arctic Ocean, Middle Asia. These works prepared an edition in the middle of the 18th century. geographer I. K. Kirillov "Atlas of Russia". (In the middle of the 18th century, only France had an atlas of its country similar to I.K. Kirillov's Atlas.) V. Bering's expeditions reached the strait between Asia and America, named after him. S. P. Krasheninnikov compiled the first "Description of the Land of Kamchatka". The names of S. Chelyuskin, cousins D. and X. Laptev forever remained on the maps of the world as evidence of their geographical discoveries. In the 60-70s, Academic Expeditions of P. S. Pallas, S. G. Gmelin, I. I. Lepekhin and others were organized to study the nature and culture of the peoples of Russia, which left behind detailed descriptions of the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia.

V. N. Tatishchev and M. V. Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. In the second half of the century, historians M.M. Shcherbatov and I.N. Boltin.

A number of original machines and mechanisms were designed by the mechanic A. K. Nartov, who worked in the time of Peter the Great. In the second half of the century, the outstanding self-taught scientist I. I. Polzunov created a steam engine 20 years earlier than the Englishman D. Watt. However, in the conditions of serfdom, this invention did not receive practical use and was forgotten. Another remarkable inventor, I.P. Kulibin, ended his days in poverty, whose project of a single-arch 300-meter bridge across the Neva and outlandish products still amaze people.

In the time of Peter the Great, the first Russian natural history museum, the Kunstkamera, was opened (1719). At the end of the XVIII century. Catherine II's purchase of a number of private art collections in Europe laid the foundation for one of the largest and most significant museums in the world - the Hermitage.

There were not enough own scientists in Russia, and at first foreign specialists were invited to the Academy of Sciences. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schlozer. However, next to them were often foreign adventurers who had nothing to do with science. With the arrival of the Academy in the middle of the XVIII century. M. V. Lomonosov, there was a noticeable increase in the number of Russian specialists-scientists.

M. V. Lomonosov

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765), one of the titans of world science, a native of the state peasants of the Arkhangelsk province, raised Russian science to a new level with his encyclopedic knowledge and research. There was not a single branch of knowledge at that time where his genius would not manifest itself. MV Lomonosov was one of the founders of physical chemistry; made remarkable assumptions about the atomic and molecular structure of matter; discovered the law of conservation of energy; studied atmospheric electricity. His discovery of the atmosphere on Venus marked the creation of astrophysics as a special science.

M. V. Lomonosov also owns remarkable works in the field of humanities. He was the first to speak out against the Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state. His "Russian Grammar" was the first scientific grammar of the Russian language. M. V. Lomonosov left a very noticeable mark in poetry (the founder of syllabo-tonic versification): many wonderful odes, poems and poems belong to his pen.

MV Lomonosov played an outstanding role as an organizer of Russian science. He was the founder of the first Russian university. His students and colleagues (academicians) - astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M. E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S. P. Krasheninnikov and I. I. Lepekhin, physicist G. V. Rikhman and others - enriched Russian science wonderful discoveries.

public thought

The problems of overcoming the backwardness of the country were central to the social and political thought of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. Peter I and his associates - Feofan Prokopovich, P. P. Shafirov and others - from the rationalistic positions of "natural law" and "common good" proved the need for transformation and the monarch's right to unlimited absolutist power. In his writings “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs” and “Spiritual Regulations”, F. Prokopovich consistently pursued the idea that “the Russian people are such by their nature that they can be preserved only by autocratic rule.” P. P. Shafirov in his “Discourse on the Causes of the Svean War” argued the need to fight for the Baltic, the land of the “fathers and grandfathers” of the Russian people.

The original thinker of the time of Peter the Great was I. T. Pososhkov, who is sometimes called the first Russian economist. The craftsman, and later a wealthy merchant, I. T. Pososhkov, in the book "On Poverty and Wealth" acted as an ardent champion of Russian industry and trade.

In the middle - second half of the XVIII century. was at the center of Russian social thought peasant question. Criticism of certain aspects of serfdom was voiced in the speeches of some deputies of the Legislative Commission, in the magazine polemics of N. I. Novikov with Catherine II. This struggle prepared the appearance of the revolutionary republican A. N. Radishchev, who spoke out against the autocracy and serfdom.

Russian literature of the 18th century. writers, poets and publicists, such as A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, N. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin, etc.

Life and customs

After visiting the countries of Europe and returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I, with his usual impatience, began to cut the beards of the boyars who met him and cut off the long sleeves and skirts of boyar clothes with his own hands. He ordered to cut his hair short and shave his face (the boyars complained that their faces were "barefoot"). Only the clergy and peasants were allowed to wear beards. Those who wanted to keep a beard had to pay a special tax, as evidenced by a special copper "beard sign". More practical European clothing was introduced everywhere. Smoking was allowed, which earlier, according to the Council Code of 1649, was regarded as a criminal offense. The assemblies (meetings) introduced by Peter became the place of meetings and entertainment.

By order of the tsar, a special guide was translated from German on the rules of good manners and behavior in society - “An Honest Mirror of Youth”, supplemented by Peter I. It was instructed to keep the father and mother “in great honor”, ​​quickly answer questions, be polite with seniors. Advice was given on how to behave in society. The Honest Mirror of Youth was in great demand and was reprinted four times.

Along with the assemblies that were held for the nobility, public holidays were also held during the time of Peter the Great. Triumphal arches were built, “fiery fun” (fireworks) were arranged, mass festivities were held during the celebration of victories in wars, fleet reviews, coronation celebrations. Beginning on January 1, 1700, Russia began to celebrate the New Year and arrange Christmas trees. Then, from January 1, 1700, Russia switched to the chronology from the Nativity of Christ, as was customary in most European countries.

Architecture

In the XVIII century. architecture has evolved. In the field of construction, a transition was made from a radial-ring to a regular layout, which is characterized by geometric correctness, symmetry, the establishment of uniform rules and techniques in the development of streets, a certain ratio of the sizes and heights of buildings. All this was embodied in the construction of the new capital of the Russian Empire - St. Petersburg. A group of prominent architects of the early Baroque (J. Leblon, D. Trezzini) carried out its planning and development. D. Trezzini erected the summer palace of Peter I, the cathedral Peter and Paul Fortress, the building of the Twelve Collegia.

Monumental construction continued in Moscow. In the first half of the XVIII century. the Menshikov Tower (next to the building of the Moscow Main Post Office), the Church of John the Warrior on Yakimanka, the cathedral of the Zaikonospassky Monastery (its dome is clearly visible behind the lobby of the Ploshad Revolutsii metro station) were built. Their creation is associated with the name of the architect Ivan Zarudny. In these buildings, elements of medieval architecture are intertwined with secular beginnings - the buildings resemble palace buildings or monumental towers crowned with crosses. At the same time, the Arsenal in the Kremlin, the industrial buildings of the Cloth and Mint were built in Moscow, A stone bridge across the Moskva River and the Kuznetsky Bridge across the Neglinnaya, the Lefortovo Palace and other public buildings.

The development of wooden architecture continued. At the beginning of the XVIII century. his highest achievement was the construction of the Kizhi Ensemble on one of the islands of Lake Onega with the 22-domed central Church of the Transfiguration.

Following St. Petersburg, the principles of regular planning spread to the old Russian cities. For this purpose, a special commission was created, which compiled more than 400 redevelopment projects (general plans) of cities.

dominant architectural style in the first half of the 18th century. was baroque. The baroque (translated from Italian as “pretentious”) is characterized by the monumentality of buildings, combined with splendor, brilliance, magnificence, and emotional elation. This was achieved due to the curved lines of the facades and the general plan of buildings, the abundance of columns, decorative moldings and sculptures that created chiaroscuro effects.

The greatest baroque master in Russia was V. V. Rastrelli, an Italian by birth, who found a second home in Russia. He built the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, palaces in Tsarskoye Selo and Peterhof, a number of palaces for the St. Petersburg nobility, St. Andrew's Church and the Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv, etc.

And in Moscow, the city architect D. V. Ukhtomsky built the Kuznetsk bridge across the Neglinnaya River, the Red Gate, the bell tower in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. They created architectural school, from which wonderful architects A.F. Kokorinov, I.E. Staroye, M.F. Kazakov and others came out.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Strict and majestic classicism came to replace the lush, bright baroque. Classicism is characterized by clarity of forms, simplicity and at the same time monumentality, which affirmed the power and strength of the state, the value of the human person. It is based on an appeal to the laws of classical architecture of Greece and Rome. Classicism provided for a strict symmetry of the layout, the selection of the main parts of the building, the clarity of horizontal and vertical lines.

Petersburg took on a "strict, slender appearance." In the second half of the XVIII century. architect I. E. Staroye built the building of the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, V. I. Bazhenov - the Kamennoostrovsky Palace and the Arsenal, A. F. Kokorinov and J. B. Wallen-Delamot - the Academy of Arts and Rinaldi - Marble Palace, Yu. M. Felten - Neva embankment and lattice summer garden, D. Quarenghi - Academy of Sciences and other buildings. A unique image of St. Petersburg was taking shape:

Along busy shores

The slender masses crowd

Palaces and towers; ships

Crowd from all sides of the earth

They strive for rich marinas.

The Neva is dressed in granite,

Bridges hung over the waters ...

(A. S. Pushkin).

Moscow also enriched itself with outstanding architectural buildings. The brilliant Russian architect V.I. Bazhenov erected the Pashkov House (now the old building of the Russian State Library). A student and friend of V. I. Bazhenov M. F. Kazakov created a large number of public buildings and mansions, and today adorn the capital. This is the Senate building in the Kremlin, the Hall of Columns of the Noble Assembly of the Nobility, the old building of Moscow University, the pseudo-Gothic patterns of the Petrovsky Palace and other magnificent buildings.

Sculpture

In the first half of the XVIII century. the general process of secularization of art, the needs of public life gave impetus to the development of sculpture. Sculptural images have become an integral part of the garden and park complexes being created in the new capital and its suburbs, as well as triumphal arches and gates erected in memory of the victories of Russian weapons. Interest in man inspired artists to create sculptural portraits. As well as in other forms of art, in the sculpture of the first half of the XVIII century. baroque dominated, in the second half - classicism.

Of the masters of the Baroque, the largest was B. K. Rastrelli - father famous architect. Among his the best works include busts of Peter I and A. D. Menshikov, a full-length portrait statue of Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child.

In the second half of the XVIII century. a series of outstanding sculptural portraits glorified himself fellow countryman M.V. It is characterized by an extraordinary depth of presentation of images. He created portraits of M. V. Lomonosov, A. M. Golitsyn, G. A. Potemkin, P. A. Rumyantsev, Z. P. Chernyshev, Emperor Paul I. As the highest gratitude outstanding sculptor the epitaph sounds on the tombstone of F. I. Shubin: “And under his hand the marble breathes.”

The monument to A. V. Suvorov, depicted by the sculptor in the allegorical image of the god of war Mars (on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg), glorified himself M. I. Kozlovsky. He also owns the main statue of the Peterhof cascade of fountains - "Samson", symbolizing the victory of Russia in the Northern War.

A remarkable place in the history of Russian sculpture belongs to IP Martos. They created the first sculptural monument Moscow - a monument to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky (1818), a monument to M. V. Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk, a cycle of outstanding tombstones.

One of the symbols of St. Petersburg was the Bronze Horseman - a monument to the founder of the city, the great historical figure Peter I. He was created french sculptor E. M. Falcone.

Painting

Already in parsuns and iconography of the 17th century. (for example, S. Ushakova) there has been a transition to secular art. In the first half of the XVIII century. The successes of Russian painting were especially clearly manifested in the work of A. T. Matveev and I. N. Nikitin. The leading genre of their work was a portrait. In the portraits of Peter I and the "Outdoor Hetman" I. Nikitin, in "Self-portrait with his wife" by A. Matveev, along with showing the portrait features of their heroes, the artists conveyed their inner world, spiritual individuality. This feature of the Russian portrait painting- wealth transfer inner world man, his unique individuality - put a Russian portrait of the XVIII century. among the outstanding achievements of world art.

A little old-fashioned, resembling a parsun in shape, the portraits of the artist A. P. Antropov look: A. M. Izmailova, Peter III. Close to A. P. Antropov in his picturesque manner, I. P. Argunov, who came out of the serfs of the Sheremetevs (portraits “Unknown Peasant Woman”, “Kalmychka Annushka”, etc.). F. S. Rokotov, with his filigree technique, was better than others in conveying the inner world of those depicted: portraits of the poet V. I. Maikov, husband and wife of the Surovtsevs. The largest portrait painter of the second half of the 18th century. D. G. Levitsky expressed the versatility human nature, for example, in the portraits of N. I. Novikov, the rich man and philanthropist P. Demidov, pupils of the Smolny Institute, D. Diderot. In the images created by V. L. Borovikovsky, the intimate aspects of human nature are more clearly revealed. The artist was clearly under the influence of sentimentalism (portraits of M. I. Lopukhina, A. B. Kurakin, V. I. Arsenyeva, etc.).

Along with portraiture, distribution in the 18th century. received graphics (A. F. Zubov), mosaics (M. V. Lomonosov), landscape (S. F. Shchedrin) and especially paintings on historical and mythological subjects(A.P. Losenko). In watercolors by I. A. Ermenev and paintings by M. Shibanov, for the first time in Russian painting, an image of the life of peasants appeared. Folk pictures - popular prints - have also been preserved.

Theater

The first Russian professional theater arose in 1750 on the initiative of the merchant F. G. Volkov in Yaroslavl. Two years later, the theater moved to St. Petersburg, and in 1756, by royal decree, it was transformed into Russian theater(now the Academic Drama Theater named after A. S. Pushkin).

At the same time, the largest Russian nobles created theaters in their estates or in their capital houses, where their serfs were actors (in Moscow and the Moscow region, for example, there were more than 50 of them). There were more than 100 fortress orchestras in the country. The most famous is the Moscow Sheremetev Theater in Ostankino, which was brought to fame by actors from serfs - the dramatic actress and singer P. I. Zhemchugova and the ballerina T. V. Shlykova.

In the XVIII century. the beginning of ballet art in Russia was laid: in 1738 the first ballet school was opened in St. Petersburg. In the same century, the first Russian opera performances were also written and staged: the opera Anyuta, the composer of which is considered to be V. A. Pashkevich, The Miller-sorcerer, the deceiver and the matchmaker by M. M. Sokolovsky, The Coachmen at the postav by E. I. Fomina; the composer D.S. Bortnyansky created his works.

One of the most important results of the development of Russian culture in the XVIII century. was the process of folding the Russian nation. The victory of the secular trend in art, the establishment of broad ties with the culture of other peoples, the successes of science prepared the rise of Russian culture in the 19th century.

Science, education, publishing have reached, many educational institutions and libraries have been opened. Created outstanding works culture in architecture, sculpture, painting, theatre, literature, etc. Many figures of science and culture glorified Russia all over the world.

For Russia, as well as for Western European countries, the XVIII century. was the age of the Enlightenment. culture higher strata Russian society, secular at its core, differed significantly from traditional culture peasants and city dwellers. However, there was no impassable abyss between them. Works of literature, works of painting, sculpture and architecture became public property. The enlightened part of society was more and more imbued with the idea of ​​improving the life of the entire Russian people.

The main events and periods of culture of the 18th century in Russia:

• until 1725 - cm.Culture under Peter I .
• 1762 - the creation of the "Commission on the stone structure."
• 1764 - the opening of the Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational House.
• 1769 - the beginning of the publication of the journals "Vsakaaya Vsyachina" and others.
• 1782 - the opening of the monument to Peter I on the Senate Square in St. Petersburg.
• 1783 - discovery Russian Academy 1786 - the opening of public schools.
• 1795 - the opening of the first Public Library.

Art of the 18th century in Russia by periods

Art of the 18th century in Russia by industry

• Painting of the 18th century in Russia. material from the site

Russian literature of the 18th century

The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, popular uprisings and, finally, the French Revolution led to the fact that many poets and writers of the second half of the 18th century began to devote their works to topical social problems. In Russian literature of the 18th century, three names can be noted - G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin and A. N. Radishchev.

Music of the 18th century

Among the musicians of the reign of Catherine II, Dmitry Stepanovich Bortnyansky (1751-1825) was especially distinguished. He was born in Ukraine. He studied singing and music theory at the Court Singing Chapel in St. Petersburg. For ten years he lived in Italy, where he perfected himself in the art of music. Here his first operas were staged. In 1779 Bortnyansky returned to Russia. His writings, presented to Empress Catherine II, made a sensation. Bortnyansky was awarded the title of composer of the Court Chapel and was awarded a monetary award, and in 1796 he was appointed director of the Court Choir. Bortnyansky entered the history of Russian music primarily as the author of spiritual choral compositions.

• Peasant life (cf.

2. Russian culture of the XVIII century

Culture of Russia in the XVIII century. developed under the influence of changes that took place in the socio-economic and political life countries. The development of the economy and absolutism predetermined the development of Russian culture as a secular culture. To a large extent, this was facilitated by the fall of the spiritual dictatorship of the church, since absolutism deprived it of economic and political power and, subordinating it to its power, turned the church into a part of the state apparatus. Changes in the 18th century in culture, touched primarily on the culture of the ruling class - the nobility. In the XVIII century. in culture, its class character was sharply manifested. On the one hand, the culture of the nobility and some social groups such as merchants, bureaucrats, and on the other hand, the culture of the general population, primarily the peasantry, which preserved traditional forms and elements of culture in the household, spiritual and aesthetic (folklore), usually legal areas.

History of Russian culture of the XVIII century. usually divided into two periods: the end of the XVII - the first quarter of the XVIII century. (becoming new culture) and the middle - the second half of the XVIII century. - the development and flourishing of the secular noble culture and folk, which was basically traditional in nature.

The first stage in the development of culture bears the imprint of Peter's reforms. Russia is becoming secular, European culture. At this time, an ideology was created that determined the educational and instructive role of art in society. The system of arts developed in two directions: the improvement of previously found means of artistic expression, as well as the search and creation of new genres. In it time is running the process of development of secular education, the ideology of the absolutist state is being formed, architectural ensemble Petersburg, portraiture, music, theater are developing. Knowledge is turning into science, the Academy of Sciences and the university are operating under it. A university is being created in Moscow where education is combined with development scientific research and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Baroque gives way to classicism.

At the second stage of cultural development, there is a flourishing of artistic creativity, classicism in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting. Petersburg composer school. Secular education is developing, which acquires a class character.

The creation and development of the Russian state required everything more educated people. At the beginning of the XVIII century. Primary schools were created in the provinces: priests were trained in 46 diocesan schools, petty officials were trained in 42 digital schools, and soldiers' children were taught in garrison schools. Education became compulsory for the nobility.

In 1701, two new types of schools appeared in Moscow: Pushkarskaya (artillery) and Navigatskaya. The Navigational School trained not only maritime specialists, but also engineers, surveyors, teachers for digital schools, architects and civil officials. Since 1715, it has become a preparatory class for the Naval Academy established in St. Petersburg. A medical school was opened in Russia in 1707. Engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and craft schools were created and functioned. Foreign languages ​​were taught at Pastor Gluck's gymnasium. Of great importance for the training of specialists was the sending of young nobles abroad.

The development of secular education raised the question of creating new textbooks. In 1701 Polikarpov's primer was published. In 1703, a textbook on arithmetic by L. F. Magnitsky appeared. Arabic numerals were introduced instead of alphabetic numerals. Magnitsky and Farvarson prepared a table of logarithms by A. Vlakka for publication. In 1708 civil type was introduced. For the printing of textbooks, scientific publications, legislative acts, printing houses were created in the cities. In 1722, Skornyakov-Pisarev's manual on mechanics was published. In total, during the reign of Peter I, 610 titles of books were published. The development of printing contributed to the development of bookselling and librarianship. In 1714, the first public library was opened in St. Petersburg, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences.

Since 1731, closed noble educational institutions began to be created, in particular the land gentry cadet corps - a military educational institution for the nobles. The corps trained officers for the army and officials for work in civilian departments. There were studied both military disciplines and geography, jurisprudence, foreign languages. In 1752, the Naval Corps was created. Later, the Artillery and Engineering Corps were created. In 1759 the Corps of Pages was opened. These corps were given special protection by the government.

In the second half of the XVIII century. the efforts of the autocracy were aimed at creating a "new breed of people." The conductor of this policy was the talented teacher I. I. Betskoy. He developed the "General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth". It was approved by the Empress. The “new breed of people” had to be brought up in isolation from the family and society from the age of 5 or 6 in closed class educational institutions of the boarding school type. In them, students were supposed to receive a certain amount of knowledge assigned to a representative of one or another class, clearly learn their rights and obligations according to their class, and most importantly, they had to be "turned away from all kinds of insolence." This was achieved by the effort to "inspire the youth with the fear of God." Cut off from family and society until the age of 18-20, students of these educational institutions were preparing for classes that corresponded to their class affiliation. The nobleman was waiting for an officer or public service. " New person”, who was trained in an orphanage, had to engage in crafts and other activities prescribed for his class. By education and upbringing, he differed from the nobles.

In 1764 and 1770 According to the project of Betsky, Orphanages for foundlings and "unfortunately born" babies were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens in St. Petersburg was opened for young noblewomen. In 1765, a department for petty-bourgeois girls was created there. In 1772, a commercial school was opened for the children of merchants and philistines, the so-called Demidov Lyceum. In 1779, the Catherine Institute was opened for girls from the families of the townspeople and merchants. The cadet corps were transformed.

In 1744, the digital schools were merged with the garrison ones and became known as literacy schools. In the second half of the XVIII century. spiritual education could be obtained in diocesan schools, theological seminaries and academies.

In 1782–1786 In Russia, a school reform was carried out, which marked the beginning of the creation of a general education school with unified curricula and a unified teaching method. In the country, the main ones were created in the provinces, and small public schools in the counties. In small schools, which provided elementary knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, calligraphy and catechism, students studied for two years. The main schools had a four-year education. Primary disciplines were taught there, as well as the Russian language, arithmetic, history, geography, natural science, architecture, physics and mechanics. At the end of the XVIII century. 400 public schools were created.

In addition to state schools, private individuals on their own initiative in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Tver, Tula and other cities created schools for poor children and orphans. In 1779, on the initiative of N. I. Novikov, the first pedagogical educational institution was opened at Moscow University - a teacher's seminary. At the end of the XVIII century. There were three medical schools in Russia. In addition to them, medical education was given at the Medico-Surgical Academy and at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University.

In the XVIII century. Russia is beginning to develop university education. In 1724, Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences. Its structure included a gymnasium and a university. At the academic university, future scientists were to be trained, and the members of the Academy were to conduct classes there. However, the academic gymnasium and the university until 1758, when M.V. Lomonosov was entrusted with the leadership of the educational and scientific part of the Academy, eked out a rather miserable existence due to insufficient material base, organizational confusion, and unsuccessful selection of teachers. M. V. Lomonosov managed to raise teaching to a higher level, teaching began to be conducted in Russian. The teachers included the best students of the university. However, the academic university was far from becoming the citadel of education and science in Russia.

In the 1950s, M. V. Lomonosov concentrated his efforts on organizing a university in Moscow, which was to become a center of education and science. In 1755, with the assistance of the most prominent Elizabethan nobleman I. I. Shuvalov, Moscow University was opened. He also became its first curator. But the main idea of ​​creating and organizing the university belonged to M. V. Lomonosov. They developed a project for his organization. Moscow University was a classless secular educational institution. Unlike Western European universities, it did not have a faculty of theology, and teaching was conducted in Russian, not in Latin. There were three faculties at Moscow University: philosophy with departments of verbal and physical and mathematical, legal and medical. For the training of students at the university, a gymnasium was created with two departments - for noblemen and raznochintsy.

Moscow University from its very foundation has become a center of education, science and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Here public lectures were given and scientific debates were held, scientific and educational literature was widely published. In the second half of the XVIII century. Moscow University became the largest center of science and education in Russia, where outstanding professors N. N. Popovsky, A. A. Barsov, D. S. Anichkov, S. E. Desnitsky and others worked.

The creation in 1757 of the Academy of Arts, which grew out of the art classes of the university gymnasium, is connected with Moscow University. The student theater of Moscow University laid the foundation for professional theater in Moscow. In 1756, Moscow University began to publish the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti, and then magazines. In the 1970s, the first literary society arose. Moscow University also became the center of development national culture.

The opening of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1725 became an important stage in the development of Russian science in the 18th century. In the Petrine era, the development of science and technology was determined by the practical needs of the state. Therefore, great successes have been achieved in the search for minerals, the study of the bowels, cartography. Expeditions were made to Siberia and Far East, Central Asia by V. Atlasov, I. Evreinov, D. G. Messerschmidt, I. Unkovsky and others. Maps of Kamchatka were compiled. S. Remezov at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. began to draw up the "Drawing Book of Siberia". This work was continued by I.K. Kirillov, who began to compile the Atlas of the All-Russian Empire. Its first volume was published in 1732. In January 1725, Peter I signed a decree on sending the Kamchatka sea expedition of V. I. Bering and A. L. Chirikov, which lasted from 1725 to 1730.

Great successes were achieved in the field of mechanics, the creation of machine tools, mechanisms. Such names as M. V. Sidorov, Ya. Batishchev, A. Nartov, I. I. Serdyukov are known in this area. In the time of Peter the Great, the collection of scientific collections began. In 1719, the Kunstkamera was opened for public viewing, the collection of "rarities" of which served as the basis for the collections of future museums: the Hermitage, Naval, Artillery.

In 1720, Peter I issued a decree on the collection of ancient manuscripts, chronographs, chroniclers and power books from monasteries. Historical works by F. Polikarpov, The Book of Mars, Discourses on the Causes of the Svean War by P. P. Shafirov, The Core of Russian History by A. I. Mankiev, and others began to be created.

The Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg was solemnly opened on December 27, 1725. Within two decades, it took a prominent place among other academies in the world. At that time, prominent scientists worked in it: mathematicians L. Euler, D. Vernull, astronomer J. Delisle, physicists G. Richmann, F. Aepinus. In 1745, M. V. Lomonosov, a truly outstanding figure in Russian science. He formulated atomic and molecular ideas about the structure of matter, the conservation of matter and motion, thoughts about the kinetic nature of heat, conducted studies of atmospheric electricity, put forward a theory of color formation, ideas about the change in time of the earth's surface. In the natural sciences, Lomonosov was an innovator, in many respects boldly refuting the opinions of the authorities recognized in his time. Working on the corpuscular theory, he opposed the idealistic constructions of Leibniz and Wolff, and having discovered the law of conservation of matter and motion, he declared that "the opinion of the glorious Robert Boyle is false." The number of such examples can be multiplied.

In the field of natural sciences, Lomonosov's works were distinguished by novelty, depth of research, and consistency in the implementation of materialistic principles. The materialistic ideas and theories of Lomonosov, significant not only for Russia, but also for Western Europe, allowed him to achieve outstanding success in solving the most important scientific problems.

Lomonosov's scientific work contributed to the development of metallurgy and mining, manufactory production, national defense, navigation, Agriculture. Another thing is that under the conditions of the dominance of feudal relations, his discoveries did not find proper application, and often were simply hushed up.

With his work in the field of poetry and the Russian language, Lomonosov rendered "a service to the Fatherland." Creating a new versification, he did not refuse that truly poetic that was in the fiction of ancient and medieval Rus'. Indeed, in spiritual poetry, he chose universal, emotional and psychological motives and used them in his poems. Lomonosov created a new literary language by synthesizing the living Russian and bookish Church Slavonic languages, understanding them as stylistic categories of a common literary language.

Lomonosov also used the experience of ancient authors (Horace, Virgil), German poets. Using the domestic and foreign experience of versification, he created a truly national form of verse, corresponding to "the goodness of our language." Lomonosov preferred a solemn ode. The ideological essence of his poetry was the pathos of the formation of the Russian nation, the struggle for Russian culture, and the main theme was the theme of Russia. Lomonosov's work is characterized by a state-civil orientation. In his odes, as a rule, high state problems were raised, and they were written in a solemn oratorical style.

M. V. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of the Russian language. The scientist created a grammar that brought him universal fame. Lomonosov talked about the relationship of language, the material world and human consciousness, about the role and place human word in the life of society. These considerations, of course, gave his grammar a great scientific value. Lomonosov wrote only one part of it, not having time to create the second - syntax. In Rhetoric, he developed the theory literary prose and versification. Lomonosov's "Russian Grammar" and "Rhetoric" were of great importance, as they opened the "paths to knowledge for the common mind", that is, they contributed to facilitating the communication of Russian people among themselves, the development and dissemination of education, science, and culture.

Many prominent scientists have left the walls of the Academy. The first places among them are rightfully occupied by many students of M. V. Lomonosov: mathematician and astronomer S. Ya. others

The priority direction in the work of the Academy was the study of the geography and nature of the country. Here it should be noted the work of the botanist S. G. Gmelin (“Flora of Siberia”), the naturalist of the joint venture. Krasheninnikov (“Description of the Land of Kamchatka”), documentary materials on Siberia by the historian G.F. Miller (“Miller's Portfolios”).

The second Kamchatka expedition led by Vitus Bering (1733–1743) turned out to be rich in discoveries. In the course of it, the shores of northwestern America were discovered, the strait named after Bering, and the northern shores of Siberia were described. The Kuril Islands and Northern Japan were plotted on the contour map.

In the middle and in the second half of the XVIII century. historical knowledge is being turned into science, and a number of major historical works which are based on rationalistic philosophy and criticism of historical sources. In many respects, this was facilitated by V. N. Tatishchev’s “History of Russia” (4 parts), where he brought the presentation of Russian history to the end of the 16th century. In the second half of the XVIII century. M.V. Lomonosov was fruitfully engaged in history, who, in contrast to the Normanist constructions of G. Miller and 3. Bayer, in his “Ancient Russian History ...” wrote about the autochthonous origin of the Slavs, the southern Slavic origin of the ethnonym Rus. M. M. Shcherbatov created the “History of Russia from Ancient Times” brought to 1613, which contained many inaccuracies of a chronological and geographical nature.

Major General I. N. Boltin wrote "Notes on the history of ancient and present Russia by G. Leclerc." Leclerc, a French physician, lived in Russia for ten years, and when he returned to his homeland, he wrote an essay in which he criticized the autocratic-feudal reality of Russia from an educational standpoint. In his work there were many fictions and attacks against Russia and the Russian people, coming from ignorance of the history of the country. Boltin subjected Leclerc's writings to a detailed analysis, "in order to convict and shame her insolent writer."

The dissemination of historical knowledge was facilitated by the publication of documents and historical writings. A huge role in this was played by N. I. Novikov, who published the Ancient Russian Vivliofika. Its second edition contained 20 volumes, where various historical sources were published. In the works of V. V. Krestinin and P. I. Rychkov, the development of historical local history began.

Successfully developed in Russia medicine (works on the plague by D. S. Samoilovich), agronomy. A great contribution to its development was made by the works of A. T. Bolotov.

Second half of the 18th century marked by great advances in technology. Self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin improved glass polishing for optical instruments, invented a “mirror lamp” - a prototype searchlight, a semaphore telegraph, an elevator, a new clockwork and a span of a single-arch bridge across the Neva 298 m long. I.I. Polzunov created a project steam engine and in 1765 built the first steam power plant for factory needs. It was used for two months, and then was abandoned. All these and other inventions were not widely used in Russia, where serfdom dominated, dooming industry to maintain technical and economic backwardness due to the cheapness of serf labor.

A huge role in the organization of research work was played by Princess E. R. Dashkova, who was appointed in 1783 the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. She held this post for twelve years. During this time, the economy of the academy, its educational institutions were put in order, publishing activity became more active. Two periodicals were created - the literary-artistic and historical magazine "Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word" and "New Monthly Works", which popularized scientific knowledge. In the same 1783, E. R. Dashkova headed the Russian Academy, which became the center for the study of the Russian language, streamlining its grammar, style and pronunciation. A 6-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" was prepared, which contained an explanation of 43 thousand words of the Russian language.

The 18th century was marked by the rapid development of social and political thought. Representatives of social thought of the first half of the century V. Tatishchev, D. Kantemir, I. Pososhkov, F. Prokopovich - were irreconcilable to obscurantism, inertia, patriarchalism, advocated the wide dissemination of science and education, the all-round development of industry and trade, opposed everything that hindered the development of Russia, the formation of an absolutist state. They firmly believed that the progress of Russia was the result of the activities of an autocratic monarch, and therefore proved how “monarchist rule is more useful for our state than others.”

In the second half of the XVIII century. In the socio-political thought of Russia, two directions stand out - conservative and educational.

Conservative ideologists Catherine II, M. M. Shcherbatov, N. I. Panin, M. M. Kheraskov, A. P. Sumarokov and others recognized the inviolability of autocracy and serfdom, the class division of society, spoke about the need to preserve the dominant position of the nobility strengthening his rights and privileges. At the same time, realizing that it was necessary to change the forms of the internal policy of the autocracy, representatives of the conservative trend considered it possible to make concessions to other classes if they did not affect the foundations of the existing system. They sought only to renew the existing system, having cleansed it of despotism and "Asiaticism".

Enlightenment - an anti-feudal, essentially bourgeois ideology - arose in the 60s of the 18th century, when autocracy and serfdom became an obstacle to the progressive development of the country, when social contradictions became more and more aggravated, when peasant uprisings reached unprecedented proportions in Russia and, along with economic issues brought social issues to the forefront, primarily the question of the relationship between landowners and peasants. The carriers of anti-feudal, bourgeois ideas in Russia were representatives of the advanced nobility and the emerging raznochintsy intelligentsia. Economically weak, politically disenfranchised, closely connected with the autocracy and dependent on it, the emerging Russian bourgeoisie was not and could not become the bearer of anti-feudal ideas.

The ideologists of the Russian enlightenment, at the origins of which stood the great M. V. Lomonosov, were N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, A. Ya. Polenov, Ya. P. Kozelsky, I. A. Tretyakov, D. S. Anichkov, P. S. Baturin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, Radishchevites - I. P. Pnin, I. M. Born, V. V. Popugaev, A. Kh. Passek, S. A. Tuchkov.

In the development of enlightenment in the second half of the XVIII century. two stages can be distinguished. In the 1960s and 1970s, the country was not yet ripe for bourgeois transformations, there was no broad social movement, and it was a question of limiting, softening, eliminating only the most flagrant manifestations of serfdom. Enlighteners sharply criticized various aspects of the feudal-serf system, pinned their hopes on the omnipotence of enlightenment and the activities of an enlightened monarch. But this criticism prepared the way for the ideological negation of the entire feudal system as early as the 1980s and 1990s. These years were marked for Russia by the further deepening of the disintegration of the feudal-serf system and the aggravation of social contradictions. The feudal system was shaken by revolutions in America and France. And it was during this period that Radishchev developed an integral political ideal of enlightenment based on an analysis of the entire social system of then Russia. In the 1980s and 1990s, in his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, he put forward the idea of ​​a people's revolution as a means of destroying the autocracy.

But at the end of the XVIII century. the revolutionary way of fighting absolutism was rejected by the enlighteners. A significant role was played in this by the peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev and the revolution in France of 1789–1794. Russian society was frightened by them and regarded them as "bloody riots." The Radishchevites continued to think about the condition of the peasants, serfdom, justified peaceful ways to eliminate it, criticized social foundations, political institutions, but without revolutionary conclusions.

In the XVIII century. Russian literature developed rapidly. Its heyday came in the second half of the century, when culture began to reflect the features of a rising nation. In the first quarter of the century, literature served mainly as a means of propaganda for government activities. The main content of the cultural process of the middle and second half of the XVIII century. was the rise of classicism, ideological basis which was the struggle for a powerful national statehood under the auspices of autocratic power.

As a literary trend, Russian classicism was characterized by the pathos of citizenship, strong educational tendencies, a sharp accusatory stream, and the defense of the idea of ​​the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy.

In the second half of the XVIII century. a new fiction was created with a developed system of genres: ode, fable, elegy, tragedy, comedy, story, novel. A. P. Sumarokov was a famous writer (9 tragedies, including Khorev, Dmitry the Pretender, and 12 comedies). Left a mark on theatrical dramaturgy Ya. B. Knyazhnin ( dramatic work"Vadim Novgorodsky", libretto for the operas "Misfortune from the Carriage", the drama "Arfey") and V. A. Kapnist (the comedies "Snake", "Ode to Slavery"). G. R. Derzhavin wrote poems and odes (“Nobleman”, “Felitsa”, “On the Capture of Ishmael”, “On the Capture of Warsaw”, “Waterfall”, “Desire”). The talent of A. N. Radishchev was revealed in "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" and the ode "Liberty".

In Russian literature of the second half of the XVIII century. an artistic-realistic direction begins to take shape. Here, D. I. Fonvizin, the author of the comedies The Brigadier and The Undergrowth, left a major mark, although in form they were similar to the works of classicism.

"The Brigadier" was written in 1769, when the memories of the debates in the Legislative Commission were still fresh, where the nobles, defending their rights and privileges, referred to their noble birth and services to the Fatherland. Fonvizin in the comedy showed what the "noble" Russian nobility was like. He ridiculed the typical Russian reality. True, seeing the main cause of Russia's disasters in the wrong education, Fonvizin did not yet connect it at that time with the existing autocratic system.

The playwright did this in the comedy "Undergrowth", written in 1782. Three problems are posed in this work: serfdom, the upbringing of a nobleman who is faithful to his official duty, and the form of power. In Fonvizin, they are inextricably linked. Exposing landowner arbitrariness in the images of Prostakova and Skotinin, he showed that serfdom corrupts and disfigures landowners, turns them into ignorant people who think only about personal gain, forgetting about honor and duty to the Fatherland. Serfdom also has a detrimental effect on the peasants, making them slaves not only by position, but also by consciousness (Eremeevna). The environment of ignoramuses, hypocrites, parasites gives rise to their own kind.

In The Undergrowth, Fonvizin ridiculed the methods of education that were common in most of the estates of the provincial nobles. Poorly educated, ignorant people were invited to home teachers. Ignorant in the sciences, uncultured parents, in order to keep up with fashion, hired foreigners who had never been engaged in education before. And there were many such teachers. In the words of Prostakova, Fonvizin expressed the true attitude of many provincial nobles to education. “Without science, people live and lived,” she says to Starodum. “The late father was a governor for fifteen years, and with that he deigned to die because he did not know how to read and write, but he knew how to earn and save enough.” Here main value for a nobleman, but "learning is nonsense."

Fonvizin not only laughs at Mitrofan's knowledge and his unwillingness to learn, but also indignantly shows his essence - the essence of a serf-owner, ready to "take on people", ready for any betrayal for his own benefit. "Here are the wickedness worthy fruits”, Starodum exclaims, looking at Mitrofan.

The result of the exacerbation of social contradictions in the country was the crisis of classicism, which began in the 70s of the XVIII century. At the end of the century, a style of sentimentalism began to develop, marked by emotional perception surrounding world, increased interest in human feeling. The flowering of sentimentalism is associated with the work of N. M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”).

In the XVIII century. architecture flourished. In the time of Peter the Great, the new principles of architecture were fully embodied in the construction of St. Petersburg. This is, first of all, a preliminary plan for the development of the city, the development of a special style of regular planning, urban ensembles with a system of streets, quarters, and squares. In 1703, the so-called Office of Buildings was created. In 1714, Peter I banned stone construction throughout the country, except for St. Petersburg, so that all the craftsmen, left without work, flocked to the capital and completed it faster.

At first St. Petersburg was built up only by foreign masters, but in the 1920s Russian architects also began to be involved. The plan for the regular development of the city was developed by the French architect Jean Baptiste Leblon. The Italian architect D. Trezzini made a special contribution to the construction of the city: he built the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress, the Kunstkamera, the building of the Twelve Colleges, and the Summer Palace of Peter. Russian master M. G. Zemtsov created the ensemble of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, M. O. Anichkov - the palace on the Fontanka (Anichkov Palace), I. K. Korobov built the Admiralty, P. M. Eropkin created the development project for the Admiralty Island between the Neva and the Moika and developments in the New Holland area.

Moscow architecture was associated with the names of the architects M. I. Choglokov and N. P. Zarudny. Choglokov built the Sretensky Gate of the Earthen City, the Sukharev Tower, the Mint and the building of the Main Pharmacy. Zarudny built the Menshikov Tower.

In the 40–50s of the XVIII century. the dominant style was baroque (translated from Italian as "artsy"). Baroque buildings are characterized by monumentality, which was combined with splendor, splendor, splendor, which was achieved by the curved lines of the facade, an abundance of columns, decorative moldings, and sculptures. Its prominent representative was Bartolomeo Francesco (Bartolomei Varfolomeevich) Rastrelli. He built the Biron Palace in Mitava, the Great Palace of Peterhof, the Winter Palace, the Great Palace in Tsarskoe Selo and the Smolny Monastery. In Moscow, the baroque master was D. V. Ukhtomsky (bell tower Novodevichy Convent and Red Gate).

In the 60s, the baroque was replaced by classicism. It was characterized by clarity and clarity of forms, their simplicity, but at the same time, classical buildings are monumental, asserting the power and strength of the noble state. Classicism turned to the architectural patterns of ancient Greece and Rome, relying on symmetry in planning, clarity of vertical and horizontal lines, highlighting its main parts in the building. Petersburg architects such as A. F. Kokorinov (Academy of Arts), Jean-Baptiste Vaen-Delamot (Small Hermitage and Chernyshov Palace on the Moika), A. Rinaldi (Marble Palace), J. Quarenghi (Academy of Sciences, Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Yusupov Palace on the Fontanka), the Scot C. Cameron (Pavlovsky Palace, the Cameron Gallery in Tsarskoye Selo), N. A. Lvov (Main Post Office, Priory Palace in Gatchina), I. E. Starov (Trinity Cathedral of Alexander Nevsky laurels and the Tauride Palace).

In Moscow, V. I. Bazhenov and M. ? were outstanding masters of classicism. Kazakov. Bazhenov is the founder of classicism in Russia. He was an innovator in architecture, thinking about the building in connection with the surrounding landscape and urban environment. Kazakov was distinguished by the ability to rationally place the building. The main building was located in the depths of the courtyard, and the arches of the gate, outbuildings, openwork fences went out onto the street. In the external appearance of buildings, Kazakov strove for simplicity and conciseness of forms. Smooth walls were complemented by clearly graphic details. M. F. Kazakov built the Petrovsky Palace in Lefortovo, the Senate in the Kremlin, the University, which was rebuilt in 1812 after a fire by D. Gilardi, the Golitsyn Hospital, the house of the Dolgoruky princes, the Column Hall of the House of the Unions. Bazhenov's outstanding works were the Pashkov house and the Tsaritsyno estate.

In painting already in the first half of the XVIII century. two genres stood out - portrait and engraving. The masters of the portrait were A. M. Matveev (self-portrait with his wife) and I. N. Nikitin (paintings "Peter I on his deathbed", "Outdoor Hetman", a portrait of Chancellor G. I. Golovkin). Engraving was associated with the work of A. F. Zubov (panorama of St. Petersburg) and A. N. Rostovtsev (cycle of engravings about the Northern War). In portraiture, Matveev and Nikitin laid down its main feature, characteristic of the Russian portrait XVIII c, - attention to the inner world of the characters, their individuality, the richness of the inner world of man.

In the second half of the XVIII century. in painting, three genres are distinguished - historical, everyday, portrait (ceremonial portrait, pair portrait, chamber portrait).

The historical and mythological genre is represented by the works of A. P. Losenko (“The Miraculous Catch of Fish”, “Vladimir and Rogneda”, “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”, “Abraham Sacrifices His Son Isaac”) and G. I. Ugryumov (“Test the strength of Jan Usmar”, “The Capture of Kazan”, “The calling of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom”). All of them are made in the style of classicism. The paintings of classicist artists are characterized by the abstract nature of the images, the conventionality of color, and the imitation of the poses of antique samples.

In the everyday genre, the works of M. Shibanov (“Peasant Lunch”, “Conspiracy”), watercolors by I. A. Ermenev (“Singing Blind Men”, “Beggars”) stand out. M. Shibanov - serf artist of Prince G. A. Potemkin. He painted pictures of peasant life, the conditions of which he knew well. The painting "Peasant Lunch" shows an episode of the life of a peasant family: tired faces, hard-working hands, poor food. In "Conspiracy" the festive side of the life of the peasants is displayed. The bride and groom, all present, are smartly dressed. Faces glow with joy in anticipation of the upcoming celebration.

IN portrait genre A. P. Antropov (“Ataman Krasnocheekoe”, a portrait of A. M. Izmailova), I. P. Argunov, the serf of Count Sheremetev (self-portrait, a female portrait paired to him, “Portrait of an unknown peasant woman in Russian costume”), F. S. Rokotov (“Unknown in a cocked hat”, “Unknown in a pink dress”, portrait of A. P. Struyskaya), D. G. Levitsky (portrait of A. F. Kokorinov, portrait of D. Diderot, cycle portraits of women"Smolyanki" - graduates of the Smolny Institute), V. A. Borovikovsky ("Portrait of Lizinka and Dashinka", portrait of Catherine II, portrait of M. I. Lopukhina). Antropov worked in the old manner, his portraits were somewhat reminiscent of a parsuna. Argunov was close to him in the manner of painting. Rokotov was distinguished by filigree technique. Levitsky in his portraits expressed the versatility of human nature, while Borovikovsky brought out its intimate aspects more strongly.

The process of secularization of art gave impetus to the development of sculpture. They became part of garden and park ensembles, triumphal arches. Interest in the human personality determined the creation of sculptural portraits, the first of which appeared in the 40s. Bartolomeo Rastrelli was a well-known sculptor from the Baroque masters. He owns a bronze bust, as well as an equestrian statue of Peter I, a sculpture of Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black chick.

In the development of the portrait in the second half of the XVIII century. two trends emerged: an increase in the artistic level and a deepening of the realistic image. This was true for sculpture as well. At this time, sculpture appears in three forms: relief, statue and portrait bust. Particularly famous was F. I. Shubin, a countryman of M. V. Lomonosov, who created portraits of A. M. Golitsyn, P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky and M. V. Lomonosov, the statue “Catherine the Legislator”. M. I. Kozlovsky glorified himself with the sculptures “Sleeping Cupid”, “Polycrates”, “Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion”, a monument to Suvorov on the Field of Mars. E. Falcone in the style of classicism created a monument to Peter I, known as the "Bronze Horseman".

In the music of the first half of the XVIII century. French and Italian court operas spread. In 1738, the first ballet school was opened in St. Petersburg. In the 1940s and 1950s, the development of Russian opera began. E. N. Fomin created the opera "Miller-sorcerer, deceiver and matchmaker", "Coachmen on a set-up", M. Metinsky wrote the opera "St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor".

In the 70s appears chamber music. A. N. Verstovsky was the author of the opera "Askold's Grave", the concerto "Do not reject me in the name of joy", I. E. Khandoshkin created a number of violin concertos, D. S. Bortnyansky created the operas "The Feast of the Seigneur" and "Falcon" and was the author of concerts for the church choir, cantatas and oratorios to the verses of G. R. Derzhavin, M. M. Kheraskov, which are still performed.

The first Russian professional theater was created by a royal decree in 1756 on the basis of a theater that arose in Yaroslavl in 1750 on the initiative of the merchant F. G. Volkov. In the second half of the century, amateur theaters at Moscow University, the Academy of Arts, the Shlyakhetsky Corps and the Moscow Orphanage became widespread. In 1765 there was an attempt to create a free public theater for the people, where amateur actors would play.

In the 70s, private professional theaters. From 1759 to 1779 the Russian theater operated. In 1783 was opened Stone theater in Moscow, subsequently on its basis the Maly Theater was created under the direction of Nikolai Knipper. Fortress theaters in the estates became widespread. Only in Moscow there were 18 of them. The most famous are the Sheremetev Theater in Ostankino, where the serf actress P. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova shone, and the Yusupov Theater in Arkhangelsk, where the ballerina T. Shlykova-Granatova performed.

Russian literature of the 18th century

15. Russian culture of the 18th century In the 18th century. the development of Russian culture was due to the fundamental socio-economic reforms of Peter I. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg, with a university and a gymnasium attached to it. In 1755, I. I. Shuvalov and M. V. Lomonosov founded the Moscow